COMPANION TO CANTO LIV

CITATION FORMATS

Annotations in the List of Works Cited –

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of the Article or Individual Page.” Title of the Website, Name of the Publisher [if different from website name], Date of Publication in Day Month Year format, URL. [MLA 8 format].

Example – Preda, Roxana. “Companion to Canto IV.” The Cantos Project, 5 August 2016. thecantosproject.ed.ac.uk/index.php/a-draft-of-xvi-cantos-overview/canto-iv/companion-to-canto-iv

In–text references

Abbreviation

OCCEP – The Online Companion to The Cantos of Ezra Pound

(Contributor name, OCCEP IV – n.no).

Example – (Bressan, OCCEP IV – n.3). If no name is indicated, the gloss was written by Roxana Preda. In this case, the citation will have this format – (OCCEP IV – n.13). 

References to The Cantos

As The Cantos Project is numbering the lines of The Cantos, references to cantos already glossed will be by canto number and line number(s), as standard with classical works. Example – XI: ll.7–17.

For cantos that are not yet glossed within the project, the references will be by canto number slash page number, as standard in the research on the poem. Example – IV/13. The page number refers to the American edition of The Cantos by Ezra Pound. New York – New Directions, 1998.

©Roxana Preda. Canto LIV, 27 January 2021.

Revised and updated May-September 2025.

Scientific supervision Prof. Li Wenting, SISU, Chongqing.

This Companion is the first in The Cantos Project to use AI [Deepseek]

Note on the Romanization of Chinese names

In the cantos dedicated to Chinese history, Pound is using the French romanization of his source, de Mailla’s Histoire générale de la Chine. In order to read the names with any degree of accuracy, the reader needs to follow the rules of French pronunciation. Occasionally, Pound also uses the Wade-Giles system, which brings a certain degree of confusion to the text.

In the study of the Chinese History Cantos, researchers have used the Wade-Giles system, which was generally followed before the standardization of the pinyin notation in 1986. 

The Cantos Project is therefore including the names in ideogram and pinyin in the annotation of these cantos for the first time. The names of emperors are given in Pound’s French source and are further notated in brackets in Chinese characters followed by the equivalent in Wade Giles, and pinyin, as notated in Wikipedia, Encyclopaedia Britannica, and New World Encyclopaedia. When the annotator uses the name in the notes, it will be in pinyin.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

1. Tien-tan – Tian Dan (Zh. 田單; fl. 279 B.C.), military commander of the forces of the ancient state of Qi.
   The canto connects to the conflict between the states of Qi and Yan which closes canto 53. See LIII: n.175, on Yue Yi, a Yan general who was the nemesis of the Qi state, and all but managed to destroy it in 284 BC, by conquering 70 out of its 72 cities. The story of Tian Dan happens in one of the two Qi cities left, Jimo, in present-day Shandong. See more on Tian Dan's life. 
   
   The battle of Jimo (Zh. 即墨之戰) is also called The Battle of the Thousand Oxen. Tian Dan chose an original method of defence: he rounded up all the cattle he could find and made a few secret openings in the town walls. He painted and dressed up all the cows in bright colours; then, he tied straws to their tails and daggers to their horns; finally, he set their tails on fire, sending them on a rampage straight out of the city towards the Yan army camp. His men followed, all painted and dressed up in similarly bright colours, to create additional fright. The Yan army suddenly found their camp overrun by thousands of berserk cows with a few thousand “demons” killing their soldiers. It went into complete chaos and broke down – their general, Qi Jie, was killed in the stampede.
   The defeat saw a complete reversal of fortune for the Qi state, and Tian Dan was soon able to recover all its lost cities. See Histoire II: 323. Nolde 97. 

2. poignards – Fr. “daggers.”

3. Ki-kie – Qi Jie (Zh. 騎劫, d. 279 BC), commander of the Yan forces. He was killed in the Battle of the Thousand Oxen; his army was dispersed, and the inhabitants of Jimo were set free from siege.

4. Tsié-mé – Jimo [Zh. 即墨市], town in Shandong, today called Pingdu (Zh. 平度). During the Warring States period, Jimo belonged to the state of Qi and was the second most important town in the region. 

5. WALL rose – By the order of the new emperor, the older, existing fortifications along China’s northern border were connected and extended during 220-210 BC, creating a longer, unified defensive system. At the same time, walls erected by various kingdoms to separate from each other were destroyed.
   De Mailla notes that the wall stretched from Lintao in the west [Gansu province] to Liaodong [Machurian sea coast] in the east for a distance of 10,000 li [4800 km], to close all the passages of the Tartars. Histoire II: 399. Nolde 98.

6. TSIN CHI – Qin Shi Huang (Zh. 秦始皇; W/G Ch’in Shih Huang, r. 246-210 BC). Ruler of the state of Qin, he subdued all warring states and established himself as the first emperor of a unified Chinese empire. 

7. TCHEOU – The Zhou dynasty started with the battle of Muye in 1045 BC and lasted until 256 BC, when it was destroyed by Qin Shi Huang’s great-grandfather, King Zhaoxiang of Qin (325-251 BC).

8. TSIN – The Qin dynasty (221-207 BC) lasted for fifteen years and crumbled three years after the death of its founder, Qin Shi Huang in 210 BC. It was followed by the Han dynasty, established in 202 BC.

   

9. united all China – The first emperor of Qin did not just reconquer and unify the territories of the Warring States; he drove the imperial conquest beyond them in all directions: to the west and north, his army fought the Tartar tribes (the Xiongnu) pushing them out of the Ordos region (the loop of the Yellow River) in 215 BC; to the south, by means of five military campaigns fighting the Yue tribes (221-214 BC), the Qin empire pushed through the Nanling Mountains to the South China Sea, establishing the Nanhai prefecture (with the capital at Panyu, in contemporary Guangzhou). Pound does not mention this expansion, but refers to a later trip of Lu Jia, the envoy of the Han Emperor Gao Di, to Nanhai in 196 BC (l.44). 
   De Mailla notes that in order to assert himself in relation to emperors past and future, Qin Shi Huang manipulated language in various ways. One of the methods was to refer to himself as “Qin” which means “surplus, as you might say, the surplus of the empire.” Histoire II: 394. Nolde 98-99.
   The phrase “needless bit” is Pound’s comment. 

10. burnt the books – After Qin Shi Huang became emperor in 221 BC, his prime minister, Li Si, persuaded him to suppress intellectual dissent in 213 BC: 
    “Today all is final, everybody submits to a single master, everything lives in peace; in order to obviate future disorder, Your Majesty needs to require scholars to gain instruction in the new rules of your government. No one, I know, wants to comply; they only study the ancient customs, they criticize yours, and by this means encourage people to condemn them.  [...] Your Majesty also needs to get all the books burned, except those devoted to the history of Qin; you need to order that all the copies of the Shujing and the Shijing are to be submitted to the mandarins to be reduced to ashes; forbid the people to talk about them or blame the government, on pain of death and the extinction of their families. [...] We may spare the books that deal with medicine, prophecy, and agriculture.” Histoire II: 400-1. Nolde 99-100.

11. Li-ssé – Li Si (Zh. 李斯, 280-208 BC). Prime minister to Emperor Qin Shi Huang, he assisted “in unifying the laws, governmental ordinances, weights and measures, and standardized chariots, carts, and the characters used in writing... [facilitating] the cultural unification of China.”  
    Li Si was executed during the reign of Qin Shi Huang’s son and successor, Qin Er Shi. 

12. TSIN dynasty – Qin Dynasty. The Qin dynasty did not survive long after the death of Qin Shi Huangdi in 210 BC. Three years later, in 207 BC, it crumbled under tyrannical rule and impact of rebellions whose victorious commander, Liu Bang, founded the next dynasty, the Han, in 202 BC. 
    
    “The Qin dynasty’s 14-year existence was the shortest of any major dynasty in Chinese history, with only two emperors. However, the succeeding Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) largely continued the military and administrative practices instituted by the Qin; as a result, the Qin have been credited as the originators of the Chinese imperial system that would endure in some form until the Xinhai Revolution in 1911.” Wikipedia: Qin Dynasty.

13. some fishin’... changed – Pound is taking a break from his historical survey to think of personal circumstances which he did not like and could not change. One of them concerned Ernest Hemingway’s fishing marlin in Cuba and killing lions on safari in Africa, activities for which Pound energetically rebuked his friend in his letters of 1933; the other was his wife’s Dorothy’s absolute refusal to cook. See OCCEP XL n.9 and Beall “Hemingway’s Marlin,” 2022.

14. Tse-Yng – Ziying, King of Qin (Zh. 秦王子嬰; pinyin: Qin Wang Ziying, d. 206), the last ruler of the Qin dynasty, who reigned for 46 days in 207 BC. He surrendered to the Han army in December 207 BC, but was executed by the Xiang Yu troops in January 206. 

15. Siao-ho – Xiao He (Zh. 蕭何, 257-193 BC), one of Liu Bang’s most trusted companion in arms who helped him establish the Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) and served as his chief minister.

    “Xiao was a clerk in the district government of Peixian during the later years of the Qin dynasty (221–207 BCE). He early attached himself to Liu Bang, becoming his intimate friend and serving him as an adviser when Liu joined the rebellions that brought down the Qin dynasty in 207–206 BCE. When Liu’s insurgent forces captured the Qin capital of Xianyang, Xiao obtained the government’s official files, whose records and maps would prove of considerable use to Liu in his rivalry with the leader of the rebel armies, Xiang Yu. After the collapse of the Qin, Xiang Yu gave Liu control of Sichuan and southern Shaanxi provinces, in western China. Xiao was put in charge of these rear areas as Liu embarked in the final struggle for power that ended with Xiang Yu’s suicide in 202 BC. The Han dynasty was founded under Liu, who was henceforth known as the Gaozu emperor. [...] With the unification of the empire, Gaozu officially appointed Xiao chief minister of the Han dynasty." Encyclopedia Britannica, Xiao He.

16. the palace – Most probably the imperial palace of the Qin capital, Xianyang, destroyed in 206 BC.
    “When all China was united under the Qin dynasty (221–207 BCE), Xianyang was expanded to form the capital of the new unified empire. Magnificent public buildings and palaces were erected, and some 120,000 households were moved from their homes elsewhere to populate the capital. The city was burned during disturbances and civil war in 206 BCE following the collapse of the Qin.” Encyclopaedia Britannica, Xianyang.

17. Lieou-pang – Liu Bang (Zh. 劉邦, 247-195 BC), one of the two leaders of a successful revolt against the Qin dynasty. It had been agreed with his ally, Xiang Yu, that the first to reach the capital would gain the principality of Qin, i.e. the core of the empire; Liu Bang arrived first and King Ziying of Qin surrendered in December 207 BC.
    After the fall of the Qin dynasty, Xiang Yu, as the de facto chief of the rebel forces, divided the realm into 18 kingdoms and Liu Bang was forced to accept the poor and remote Bashu region (present-day Sichuan, Chongqing, and southern Shaanxi) with the title “King of Han.” Within the year, Liu Bang broke out with his army, and started a civil war against Xiang Yu known as the Chu-Han Contention. In 202 BC, Liu Bang defeated his former ally Xiang Yu and became emperor, founding the Han dynasty and taking the title of Gao Di [Emperor Gao], or Gaozu, the “Exalted One.” Wikipedia: Emperor Gaozu of Han.

18. Eulh – Qin Er Shih Huangdi (Zh. 秦二世皇帝 [the second emperor of Qin], 230-207; r. 210-207 BC), the 18th of Qin Shi Huang’s sons, Ying Huhai. He came to the thone at 19, installed by the eunuch Zhao Gao, who became his prime minister. His disastrous reign led to the weakening of the empire under the pressure of rebellion. He was forced to suicide at 22: his successor, Ziying, could not retain the title of emperor and ruled as a king.

19. death of his eunuch – Zhao Gao (d. 207 BC), influential politician of the Qin dynasty. He was a tutor to Prince Ying Huhai and conspired with the minister Li Si to counterfeit Qin Shi Huang’s succession documents so as to bring him to power as second emperor of the Qin. Zhao Gao can be regarded as the main instrument whereby the Qin dynasty was eroded from within to succumb to the military pressures of the rebels Liu Bang and Xiang Yu. He held de facto power during the reign of Qin Er Shi Huangdi and used it to kill most of the imperial family, as well as key political and military figures loyal to the dynasty. He is responsible for the death of his own protégé, Emperor Qin Er Shi, in 207 BC, and was in turn assassinated by the emperor’s successor, Ziying, whom he had plotted to bring to power and use in the same way.

20. Hiang-Yü – Xiang Yu (Zh. 項羽, W/G Hsiang Yü; 232-202 BC), warlord from a noble family in the Chu kingdom, commanding the rebel forces against the Qin dynasty. When his ally Liu Bang reached the Qin capital first, Xiang Yu refused to let him have the upper hand. After four more years of war against Liu Bang, his forces were defeated at the battle of Gaixia in 202 BC, and he committed suicide.
    
    Based on de Mailla’s characterisation of Xiang Yu (Histoire II: 458-9), Pound sees him as a Russian revolutionary, authoritarian, ignorant, and ready to sacrifice multitudes of people to his political ends. By contrast, Liu Bang owed his success to people of merit willing to work for him, soldiers and consellors like Xiao He and Lu Jia. 

21. transmit names to posterity – Achilles Fang contested De Mailla’s translation of this famous passage in Histoire II: 459. Xiang Yu actually said: “All that one needs to do in learning how to write is to be able to sign one’s name.” (Fang I: 108). 

22. would not learn fencing – In ancient times, swordsmanship was considered a crucial skill for a noble lord. Xiang Yu thought it was a waste of time: “Books are only useful in helping me remember my name. Mastering swordsmanship allows me to face only one opponent, so it’s not worth learning. I want to learn how to defeat thousands of enemies.” Sima Qian, quoted in Wikipedia: Xiang Yu. De Mailla provides a pallid paraphrase of this quote in Histoire II: 459. Nolde 102.

23. Kao – Emperor Gaozu of Han (Zh. 漢高祖,“The Exalted One,” r. 202-195 BC), imperial title of the rebel Liu Bang, who was founder and first emperor of the Han dynasty. Histoire II: 484-522. Nolde 103-107. See also nn. 18 and 19. 
    
    The Western Han Dynasty 206 BC – 23 AD.
    The emperors Pound mentions have links to more detailed information. 

    Order	Name (Personal name)	Notes	Reign Time (years)
    1	Han Gaozu (Liu Bang)	Son of a peasant family; He revolted against the rule of Qin. After defeating Xiangyu (his rival) during a four-year war called the Chu-Han Contention (206-202 BC), he established the Western Han in 202 BC and ruled the country for 12 years.	206 BC–195 BC
    2	Han Huidi (Liu Ying)	Son of Liu Bang; since he was inept as an emperor, the power was held by his mother, Lühou.	195 BC–188 BC
    3	Han Lühou (Lü Zhi)	Wife of Liu Bang; after Liu Bang died, she was in the seat of power as Empress Dowager, although Liu Ying, and his sons Liu Gong and Liu Hong were emperors in succession.	188 BC–180 BC
    4	Han Wendi (Liu Heng)	The fourth son of Liu Bang, who came to power following a coup directed against the Lü clan after the death of the Empress Dowager. He lightened the taxes, promoting general prosperity. He was a famously frugal emperor.	180 BC–157 BC
    5	Han Jingdi (Liu Qi)	Son of Han Wendi; he carried out serious measures like Wendi had done and obtained good results.	157 BC–141 BC
    6	Han Wudi (Liu Che)	The ninth son of Han Jingdi. He subdued the ethnic Xiongnu (Hun) invaders by wars. The Western Han was in its most powerful period during the reign of the Han Wudi.	141 BC–87 BC
    7	Han Zhaodi (Liu Fuling)	The youngest son of Han Wudi. He lightened the burden of the peasants and was on good terms with the Xiongnu (Hun).	87 BC–74 BC
    8	Han Xuandi (Liu Xun)	Also called Liu Bingyi and the great grandson of Han Wudi. During his reign, the ruling position of Confucianism was strengthened and the burdens of the people were greatly reduced.	74 BC–48 BC
    9	Han Yuandi (Liu Shi)	Son of Han Xuandi. The Western Han began to decline during his reign.	48 BC–33 BC
    10	Han Chengdi (Liu Ao)	Son of Han Yuandi. He squandered the country's wealth, which led to decline.	33 BC–7 BC
    11	Han Aidi (Liu Xin)	Nephew of Han Chengdi. Although all kinds of social contradictions were sharp, he only believed in ghosts and gods to solve all the problems, with the result that Wang Mang usurped power.	7 BC–1 BC
    12	Han Pingdi (Liu Kan)	Grandson of Han Yuandi. He was a puppet of Wang Mang and later poisoned to death by him.	1 BC–6 AD
    13	Ruzi (Liu Ying)	He came to the throne when he was two years old. In 8 AD, Wang Mang declared himself emperor and killed Ruzi in 25 AD.	6–8 AD
    Xin Dynasty 9 - 23 AD
    14	Wang Mang	Nephew of the queen of Han Yuandi. In 8 AD, he became the emperor of the Western Han and changed the country's name to 'Xin' the next year. Although he carried out a series of measures, the society was in great disarray. His reign was finally overthrown by a peasant revolt.	9–23 AD

     

24. Lou-kia – Lu Jia (Zh. 陸賈, fl. ca. 200 BC), adviser to Emperor Gaozu of Han. In 196 BC, he was sent by the emperor as envoy to Zhao Tuo, former Qin general and magistrate of the Nanhai commandery in SE China (modern Guangzhou). By the time of Qin Shi Huang’s death in 210 BC, Zhao Tong had conquered additional territories and declared himself “King of Nanyue.” Lu Jia gave him the emperor’s seal that acknowledged him as king of the region. In return, Zhao Tu0 had to swear allegiance as vassal of the Han - otherwise, he could expect the army of the new dynasty to invade. Zhao Tuo was initially rude to Lu Jia but after hearing him argue his case, apologized for his attempt to humiliate him. Lu Jia’s negotiation was thus successful and brought him great prestige at the Han court. Histoire II: 511. Nolde 104-105.

25. Nan-hai – Nanhai Commandery (Zh. 南海郡; pinyin: Nánhǎi jùn) was a province established by Qin conquest in the South of China and existed from the Qin to the Tang dynasties. At its greatest extent, Nanhai’s territories covered present-day Guangdong, Hainan, south-eastern Guangxi and the southern tip of Fujian. The seat of Nanhai Commandery was Panyu (modern Guangzhou).            
    Nanhai was the core of Nanyue, a kingdom established by the Qin’s conquering of territories south of the Yangtze under the command of Zhao Tuo, who referred to himself as its king.
    After the fall of the Qin dynasty, Zhao Tuo established an uneasy and volatile vassal relation with the Han. Pound refers to the year 196 BC, when Emperor Han Gaodi sent his envoy Lu Jia to Nanhai to obtain from Zhao Tuo the obeisance to his dynasty. See also ll.77-80.

26. Chu king – The Book of Documents [also called The History Classic] (Zh. 書經; pinyin: Shujing). It is a collection of documents, mostly speeches of kings, counsellors, and military commanders of the first three dynasties, Xia, Shang, and Zhou.

27. Chi king – The Book of Odes [also called the Classic of Poetry or The Book of Songs] (Zh. 詩經; pinyin Shijing). Both The Book of Documents and the Book of Odes were prime targets for the book burning of 213 BC, as they contained historical records of past dynasties in historical or literary form. They were both saved.

28. “The New Discourse” – Xinyu (Zh. 新語; “New Talks”) is a political treatise composed by imperial adviser Lu Jia, at Emperor Gaozu’s request, to illustrate by example why dynasties succeed or fail. Focusing on the reasons why the preceding Qin dynasty had failed, Lu Jia pointed out its cruelty and intrigue. He advocated the Confucian virtues of “ren” (Zh.仁; humaneness, benevolence) and “yi” (Zh. 義; righteousness, justice) as antidotes and principles of policy. See also n. 24.

29. videlicet – L, literally videre licet, “it is permitted to see,” “namely,” “that is.” 

30. Fan-kouai – Fan Kuai (Zh. 樊噲, 242-189 BC), a former rebel against the Qin from Pei (modern Jiangsu) who early attached himself to Liu Bang and joined his group of advisers.
    The anecdote is a flashback to the days following the collapse of the Qin dynasty. After the last battle against the Qin, Liu Bang entered the royal palace, where he found treasure and women. While Xiao He, disregarding these, went to secure the official documents and maps, Fan Kuai admonished Liu Bang against surrendering himself to pleasure and urged him to return to the field with his troops, which he did. See also nn. 15, 18. Histoire II: 444. Nolde 106.

31. Hien-yang the palace – Xianyang (Zh. 咸阳; W/G Hsien Yang) the capital city of the Qin state, founded in 350 BC and destroyed in 206 BC. 
    As Achilles Fang pointed out, the line here is confusing: “Hien-Yang” is the name of the city, not that of the imperial palace (Fang I: 109). See also n.15.

32. Siao-ho – Xiao He, the most respected friend, adviser, and companion of Liu Bang during his rebellion against the Qin and chancellor of state during his reign. See n.15.

33. Au douce temps de pascor – Prov. “at the sweet time of Easter.” Pound refers to one of his favourite poems, Bertran de Born’s Be.m platz lo gais temps de pascor (“Well pleaseth me the sweet time of Easter”) where the poet admonishes the knights of the realm to prepare for war and even pawn their castles to do so. 

34. Tchang-tsong – Zhang Cang, (Zh. 張蒼, 253-192 BC), comrade in arms of Liu Bang during his rebellion against the Qin. He was well-versed in mathematics, the calendar, and music. 

35. Sun-tong – Shu Suntong, (Zh. 叔孫通; fl. 202-195 BC), politician and writer who served the Qin. His biography is presented in Chapter 99 of Shiji and Chapter 19 of the Book of Han. [...]
    After the foundation of the Han dynasty, Shu Suntong studied the court protocol of the Qin dynasty and various older regulations and made some changes to create a valid protocol for the court rituals of the Han. He was also appointed Chamberlain for ceremonials (fengchang 奉常); in 198 BC, he was made Grand Mentor (taifu 太傅) of the crown prince. (ChinaKnowledge.de)

36. put in the hall of forbears – Emperor Gaozu ordered Xiao He to write a law code; Han Xin to create a treatise on tactics; Zhang Cang to inscribe the principles of music; Shu Suntong to set down the ceremonies and rituals. After stamping these documents with the imperial seal, the emperor put them in the ancestral hall to be taken out  when successors strayed from their duties and neglected government. Histoire II: 522. Nolde 107.

37. Hiao Hoei Ti – Emperor Hui of Han (Zh. 漢惠帝; r. 195-188 BC), the second son of Emperor Gaozu. He was completely controlled by his mother, the Empress Dowager Lü. Heaven showed its displeasure by unnatural phenomena that Pound mentions. Histoire II: 527-28. Nolde 108.

38. Y·yang – Yiyang (Zh. 益阳市), prefecture-level city on the Zi River, in Hunan province.  

39. Liu-heou – Empress Lü (Zh. 呂后; pinyin: Lü Hou, 241–180 BC), Empress (Dowager) Lü Zhi,  wife of Emperor Gao. She dominated her son, Emperor Hui, during his reign; after his death, she continued to rule the empire by placing puppet rulers on the throne until her death in 180 BC. 

40. Hiao Ouen – Emperor Wen of Han (Zh. 漢文帝, W/G Hsiao Wen Ti, r. 180-157 BC). Pound mentions that after the death of Empress Lü, the mandarins brought to the throne Liu Heng, Prince of Dai, who was a son of Emperor Gao with a concubine. Histoire II: 539-68. Nolde 109. 
    Emperor Wen was famous for his generosity, humanity, and economy. He decreed that a man’s family should not suffer for his crimes. He established the unit of money in the empire and reserved to the government the sole right to coin money. He replaced the punishment of mutilation, by flogging and made beheading the only severe penalty. He also ordered that the classical books be found again and that scholars start studying them. His name means the “Literary Ruler.” 

41. chief of the Southern Barbarians – Zhao Tuo, (Zh. 趙佗; W/G Chao⁴ T'o²; r. 206-195 BC), Qin general who conquered the region south of the Nanling Mountains for Qin Shi Huang. After the death of the emperor in 209 BC, he made himself the independent king of the region (called Nanyue), establishing his capital at Panyu [contemporary Guanzhou]. Zhao Tuo was Chinese and the tombs of his ancestors were in the Han part of the empire. Histoire II: 545-6. Nolde 110. See also nn.24, 25. 

42. Nan-yuei – Nanyue, ancient kingdom in Southern China founded by the Qin general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC. 

43. Kia Y – Jia Yi (Zh. 賈誼, W/G: Chia I, 200-169 BC), member of the court of Emperor Han Wendi and head of office of tax collection. Following his memorial that grain be stored against times of famine, the emperor declared that "earth is the nurse of men" and reduced the taxes to unprecedented low levels.  Histoire II: 550-51. Nolde 111. 

44. Chang Ti – Shangdi, (Zh. 上帝), Emperor of Heaven, the equivalent of God in Abrahamic religions.

45. Tchao-tso – Chao Cuo (晁错, 200–154 BC), prominent statesman, writer, and political advisor during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han. He was well-versed in both Legalist and Confucian thought and started his career under Emperor Wen of Han as Imperial Counsellor (Zh. 御史大夫, Yushi Dafu). Chao Cuo played a crucial role in shaping policies, particularly in governance, frontier defense, and the centralization of imperial authority. 
    The key measure he advocated to Emperor Jing was the so-called “Reduction of Feudatories” (Zh. 削藩策; pinyin: Xuē fān cè) with the purpose of weakening the power of regional princes. The policy consisted in confiscating territories from powerful feudal lords; dividing kingdoms among multiple heirs to reduce their size; directly appointing imperial officials to govern key regions.

    The policy resulted in the Rebellion of the Seven Princes (154 BC). Chao Cuo was executed at the request of the rebel nobles. However, his reforms and their centralisation of imperial power were continued under his successor, Emperor Wu of Han. 

46. Li-kouang – Li Guang (Zh. 李廣, 184-119 BC), general of the Han dynasty who fought in the battles with the Tartars in the west and north of the empire. Affectionately called "the Flying General," he initially distinguished himself in the imperial fight against the Rebellion of the Seven Princes under Emperor Jing of Han. He ended his career by suicide under Emperor Wu.
    
    Pound referred to General Li Guang in a free translation of Li Bai's poem "塞下曲, 其六" (Sài xià qǔ, qí liù), "Fighting South of the Ramparts, No. 6" called "South -Folk in Cold Country" in Cathay:
    艰苦惊辛劳 / 忠诚难可宣 / 谁怜李飞将 / 白首没三边 ["The hardship is startling, the toil bitter; / Loyalty is difficult to declare. / Who pities Li, the Flying General, / Whose white head was lost on the three frontiers?"] is rendered by Pound as "Hard fight gets no reward. / Loyalty is hard to explain. / Who will be sorry for General Rishogu, / the swift moving, / Whose white head is lost for this province?" Pound introduced the general's name in its Japanese transcription as he found it in E. Fenollosa's papers. See Nagahata, 130.

47. bluffed the Tartars – In the year 144, Li Guang was at the head of a small troop scouting enemy territory beyond the Tartar (Xiongnu) border in the northwest of China. He was discovered by the Xiongnu, yet suppressed the impulse to flee, thinking that this will only make the enemy chase and destroy him and his companions. His solution was to dismount and pretend to be safe and at leisure so the Xiongnu would think he had a great army not far away, protecting him. The trick worked: the Tartars did not attack immediately and he could withdraw under the cover of night. Histoire II: 589-90. 

48. Hiong-nou – Xiongnu, one of the nomadic tribes on China’s North-west frontier which posed a continuous threat to the security of the empire. 

49. Virtue is the daughter of heaven – Achilles Fang pointed out that this statement, which Pound took over from De Mailla (Histoire III: 5), is a rather “fanciful” rendering of “the great tao [way, process] stems from heaven” (Fang I: 110). 

50. YU followed CHUN/ and CHUN, YAO having one root of conduct – the essential political precept of Confucianism is that emperors should follow the code of conduct observed by the three legendary emperors, Yao, Shun, and Yu. See also LIII: ll.27-45.

51. Hiao King – Emperor Jing of Han (Zh. 漢景帝; r. 156-140 BC). In his second year as emperor, the feudal lords rebelled but said they would disband their forces if the emperor executed his chief counselor, Chao Cuo, who had urged the emperor to reduce the principalities of the nobles and centralise power. The peace terms were met; despite that, the feudal lords attacked again in the so-called Rebellion of the Seven States but were defeated in 154 BC. See also n. 44. 

52. 新 – xīn (Zh. 新, W/G: hsin  [M2737]), “new.” The comma on the right in the New Directions edition is a printer’s error.

53. Sin/jih/jih/sin – xīn rì rì xīn (Zh. 新日日新; W/G hsin jih jih hsin; “renew yourself daily”), the self-admonition of Cheng Tang, the first emperor of the Shang dynasty. It is inscribed in The Great Digest II.1. See Con 36. See also LIII: ll. 65-73. 

54. HIA’s fortune – The Xia  (Zh. 夏, ca.2070-1600 BC)  is the first historically attested dynasty, founded by Yu the Great. See LIII: ll.74-78. Achilles Fang pointed out that it is not the Xia dynasty that was blessed with good counsellors, but rather Yu's contemporary, Emperor Shun (Fang I: 110). Among them, Pound mentioned counsellor Gao Yao in LIII: l.44.

55. Han Ou – Emperor Wu of Han (Zh. 漢武帝, [Han Wudi, “Martial Ruler” ], 156-87 BC), the seventh emperor of the Han dynasty. He is best known for his military exploits, which led to a great extension of the empire. The half century of his reign is noted both for extensive foreign conquests and for significant developments in internal administration.
    He was instrumental in establishing Confucianism as the basis ideology for the Chinese government. 

56. Prince of Hoai-nan  – Liu An (Zh. 劉安, 179-122 BC), grandson of Emperor Gao, and King of Huainan, famous for his love of books and music. De Mailla compared him unfavourably with Liu De, prince of Hokien, commenting that their tastes differed: while Liu De was interested in history and government, Liu An frivolously preferred superficial reading. Histoire III: 26.

57. Hoai-nan – Huainan was a kingdom of China’s Han dynasty, located in what is now parts of Anhui, Jiangxi, and Hubei provinces, created by Emperor Gao of Han in 202 BC. In 122 BC, its king, Liu An, was involved in an alleged plot of rebellion, and committed suicide. The kingdom was converted to Jiujiang Commandery, and the title King of Huainan became extinct. Wikipedia: Huainan.

58. Prince of Ho-kien – Liu De (Zh. 劉德 d. 130 BC), Emperor Wu’s brother. He was awarded land in what is now the Hebei province and was King of Hejian. He was passionate about books and went to great lengths to procure them. Histoire III: 26.

59. Ho-Kien – Hejian (Zh. 河间; W/G Ho Chien), town in the province of Hebei. 

60. Chu King – The Book of Documents (Zh. 書經; pinyin: Shujing) or the Classic of History is a collection of texts of the dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou. The book was believed to have been edited and compiled by Confucius and is one of the Five Chinese Classics. During the burning of the books in 213, the Shujing was saved by the scholar Fu Sheng and has served as foundation for the Chinese political philosophy until the modern period. See also n. 26.

61. Tcheou-li – Rites of Zhou (Zh. 周禮; pinyin: zhōu lǐ). It is a book on the organisation of imperial bureaucracy, royal ceremonies, and imperial protocol. It was for a long time one of the six classics of Confucianism.
    
    The Rites of Zhou [Zhōulǐ], The Book of Rites, [Liji], and the Book of Etiquette and Rites [Yílǐ], which are together known as the “Three Li (Sānlǐ),” constitute the ritual (lǐ) section of the Five Classics which lay at the core of the traditional Confucian canon.

    

62. Li Ki of Mencius – Mencius is not the author of the Liji (The Book of Rites) and the reference is probably not to Mencius himself, but to the Book of Mencius, which is considered one the of Four Books.
    Achilles Fang noticed this error in the Histoire III: 26: De Mailla should have written: “le Tcheou-li, le Li-ki, le Mong-tse.”

63. Mencius (Mong-tsé) – Mengzi (Zh. 孟子 [Master Meng], 372-289 BC), philosopher of the Warring States period who is considered a follower of Confucius. He is the author of The Book of Mencius, a Chinese classic. 

64. Chi-King or Odes of Mao-chi – The Classic of Poetry or Book of Odes (Zh. 詩經; pinyin: Shījīng), also known as Maoshi, is the oldest existing collection of Chinese poetry, comprising 305 works dating from the 11th to 7th centuries BC. It is one of the Five Classics, traditionally said to have been compiled by Confucius.

65. Tchun-tsiou – Spring and Autumn Annals (Zh. 春秋; W/G ch'un ch'iu; pinyin: chūnqiū), the last of the five classics, is a chronological record of the chief events in the state of Lu between 722 and 481 BC. It is generally regarded as the work of Confucius, whose native state was Lu.

66. Tso-kieou-min – Zuo Qiuming (Zh. 左丘明; W/G Tso Chiu-min), Confucian scholar and disciple of Confucius. Zuo has been canonized as the “Father of Prose,” for he expanded the brief entries of the Spring and Autumn Annals into dramatic episodes. His commentary is known as the Zuo Zhuan.

67. Li-yo – probable reference to 汉书·礼乐志 (Hanshu·Liyue Zhi “Book of Han:·Treatise on Rites and Music”) is one of the most important early records of Confucian ritual and musical philosophy in imperial China. Compiled by Ban Gu (班固, 32–92 CE) during the Eastern Han Dynasty, it reflects the Han synthesis of classical Confucianism, Qin legalist traditions, and Han imperial ideology. The chapter is divided into two sections: Rituals (礼, li), focusing on state ceremonies, sacrifices, and their political significance; and Music (乐, yue), which discusses the role of music in governance and moral cultivation. One of the core statements of the chapter is “乐以治内而为同，礼以修外而为异.” (“Music governs the inner [heart] and creates unity [makes the listener participate in community]; rites regulate the outer [behavior] and create distinction.”)

    

68. Han Tchao Ti – Emperor Zhao of Han (Zh. 孝昭皇帝; pinyin: Xiaozhao Huangdì, reigned 87-74 BC). Youngest son to Emperor Wu, he came to the throne at eight years old and died at twenty. During the first ten years of his reign, affairs of state were handled by his regent, Huo Guang. Most of the economic reforms noted were undertaken on Huo Guang’s initiative.
    “Emperor Wu’s long reign left the Han Dynasty greatly expanded; however constant warfare had depleted the empire’s coffers. Emperor Zhao, under the tutelage of Huo, took the initiative and lowered taxes as well as reducing government spending. As a result, citizens prospered and the Han Dynasty enjoyed an era of peace.” Wikipedia.

69. Han Sieun – Emperor Xuan of Han (Zh.  漢宣帝; W/G Han Hsüan Ti; pinyin – Han Xuandi, reigned 73-48 BC). Histoire III – 116-56. 

70. Tchang-ngan – Chang’an (Zh. 長安), the Han capital was located north-west of contemporary Xi’an. 

71. Mandarins – Members of the mandarinate, the scholar ruling class, or civil service of China which came into being about 600 BC. The mandarins were trained in the Confucian classics and were the core of the Chinese administrative system. 

72. Ouan-soui! – Wansui (Zh. 萬歲, “Ten thousand years!”), a traditional Chinese phrase for “a long time!” 

73. Tchen-yu – Chanyu (Zh. 单于; “Great Son of Heaven”), title the Tartars gave to their kings until it was superseded by “Khagan” in 402 AD. 

74. Prince of Hiong-nou – The Tartar tribes on the Western border of the empire continued to pose a threat to the Han. They would attack from the west, and could not be definitively defeated in war, nor could they be adequately held in check by diplomatic means involving gifts or marriages. 
    “In 53 BC, Huhanye (Zh. 呼韓邪) decided to enter into tributary relations with Han China. The original terms insisted on by the Han court were that, first, the Chanyu [chieftain] or his representatives should come to the capital to pay homage; secondly, the Chanyu should send a hostage prince; and thirdly, the Chanyu should present tribute to the Han emperor. The political status of the Xiongnu in the Chinese world order was reduced from that of a ‘brotherly state’ to that of an ‘outer vassal’ (Zh. 外臣). During this period, however, the Xiongnu maintained political sovereignty and full territorial integrity. The Great Wall of China continued to serve as the line of demarcation between Han and Xiongnu. Huhanye sent his son, the ‘wise king of the right’ Shuloujutang, [Zhulou Qutang] to the Han court as hostage. In 51 BC, he personally visited Chang’an to pay homage to the emperor on the Lunar New Year.” Wikipedia: Xiongnu. Histoire III: 152-4.

75. Si-yu – Xiyu (Zh. 西域; W/G Hsi-Yü), the “Western Regions” as Pound states in the poem, from the Yumen Pass, west of Dunhuang, to the Caspian Sea.

76. Bay of Naples – An exhibition of submarine warfare put on by Mussolini in the Bay of Naples on the occasion of Adolf Hitler’s visit to Italy  in 1938.

77. Ngan – incorrect abbreviation of Chang’an, the Han capital (contemporary Xi’an). See Fang I: 111. The assumption here is that since the Xiongnu (Tartars) were now vassals of the Chinese emperor, he controlled everything from the Han capital, Ch’ang·an, to the Caspian Sea. 

78. Fong-chi and Fou-chi had titles – Lady Feng (Zh. 冯媛, Féng Yuàn) and Lady Fu (Zh. 傅昭仪, Fù Zhāoyí), imperial consorts of Emperor Yuan of Han. During a palace gathering or entertainment event in the imperial court, a bear (possibly from a menagerie or brought in for performance) broke loose and charged toward the emperor. While most of the courtiers and attendants fled, Lady Feng, a lesser consort, stepped forward and placed herself between the emperor and the bear, shielding him at great personal risk. The incident became legendary, and an example of courage and loyalty for court ladies that survived over centuries – this is why a depiction of the scene is included in the famous Admonitions Scroll of the Instructress to Court Ladies, a series of paintings dedicated to illustrious examples of female virtue, traditionally ascribed to the painter Gu Kaizhi (ca. 345-406). Pound was familiar with the scroll, because an incomplete but original copy of the 18^th century was purchased by the British Museum in 1903 and formed part of the great exhibition of Asian art organized by Laurence Binyon, the curator of Oriental art at the BM in 1910-12. Pound was friends with Binyon since 1909 and may have remembered the painting of Lady Feng and the bear, as this was the first in the series of Admonitions scenes the museum owned. Qian 12; Byron 68.
    
    This may have been the reason Pound was alerted to the episode of Lady Feng and the bear when reading about it in de Mailla’s Histoire. Lady Fu had run away from the danger and can be seen in the left part of the painting, with her back turned. Because of the respect Lady Feng enjoyed as a result of her courage, Lady Fu hated her with a passion and by means of her intrigue, she caused Lady Feng to be investigated in 6 BC, long after the episode of the bear was past. Lady Feng refused to defend herself and committed suicide rather than respond to the unfounded accusations. Pound seems to suggest this whole aftermath in his line – though both women were only queens of a then defunct emperor, thus equal in rank and not at the top of the female hierarchy, yet the sense of competition and jealousy for reputation was strong enough to cause Lady Feng’s death. Histoire III: 212-4.                       
    We may observe that in the canto, Pound reproduces the story as he finds it in De Mailla, not as it is represented in the scroll. De Mailla reports that Lady Feng faced the bear, and as a result of her firmness, the animal quietly returned to its cage. In the scroll, the emperor’s guards kill the animal with their lances.

79. Han Yuen – Emperor Yuan of Han (Zh. 漢元帝; W/G Han Yüan Ti; pinyin: Han Yuandi, reigned 48-32 BC). Histoire III: 156-177.

80. seepage of bhuddists – The neo-Confucian bias against Buddhism is recorded faithfully in De Mailla’s Histoire, which is a consistently pro-Confucian source. De Mailla, a good Jesuit, deplores Buddhism as a pernicious and corrupting superstition. 

81. Han Ping – Emperor Ping of Han (Zh. 漢平帝; W/G Han Ping Ti; pinyin: Han Pingdi, “Peaceful Emperor,” reigned 1-6 AD). Since he was only nine when he came to the throne, the empire was ruled by his minister Wang Mang, who usurped all power and may have murdered Emperor Ping. In the second year of his reign, there was severe drought and famine. Wang Mang petitioned the Empress to reduce the expenses of the court so that one million taels could be distributed to the poor. Histoire III: 225-35. Nolde 123.
    
    Wang Mang would later usurp the throne and establish the Xin dynasty (9-23) on the ruins of the Han. This short-lived regime crumbled under the pressure of revolt in 25 AD. Pound does not mention this historical interlude, passing over smoothly to the period of the Eastern Han, and to events in 73 AD.

82. tael – tael (Zh. 兩; pinyin: liǎng). Chinese coin of varying weight (between 35 and 40 grams of silver) and purchasing power. The Republican government abolished the tael in 1933, and replaced it with the yuan. 
    
    Eastern Han Dynasty (25 - 220 AD)
    Names of emperors mentioned in the canto are linked to further information.

    Order	Name (Personal name)	Notes	Reign
    15	Guang Wudi (Liu Xiu)	He joined the troops to rebel against the Xin. After defeating the army of Wang Mang, he re-established the Han Dynasty making Luoyang its capital city.	25–57
    16	Mingdi (Liu Zhuang)	The fourth son of Guang Wudi. People lived a stable life during his reign. The famous White Horse Temple was built under his order.	57–75
    17	Zhangdi (Liu Da)	The fifth son of Mingdi; He was also regarded as a calligraphist adept at cursive scripts.	75–88
    18	Hedi (Liu Zhao)	The fourth son of Zhangdi	88–105
    19	Shangdi (Liu Long)	The youngest son of Hedi	105–106
    20	Andi Andi (Liu Hu)	Grandson of Zhangdi; the social divide was increased and all kinds of social contradictions became sharp under his rule.	106–125
    21	Shundi (Liu Bao)	Son of Andi; eunuch grasped the power to deal with the state affairs under his reign.	125–144
    22	Chongdi (Liu Bing)	Son of Shundi	144–145
    23	Zhidi (Liu Zuan)	Great grandson of Zhangdi	145–146
    24	Huandi (Liu Zhi)	Great grandson of Zhangdi	146–167
    25	Lingdi (Liu Hong)	Great-great-grandson of Zhangdi; the country was again in great disarray, meaning that people lived a very hard life, which caused the insurgence led by Zhang Jiao.	168–189
    26	Xiandi (Liu Xie)	Son of Lingdi; the Han Dynasty perished under his reign.	189–220

83. Tseou-kou and Tchong – Relying on the date of this incursion mentioned by de Mailla, 73 AD, during the reign of Emperor Han Ming Di (r.57-75), we may assume Pound refers to two key generals who ensured victory at the battle of Yiwulu (Zh. 伊吾卢之战): Dou Gu (Zh. 窦固, supreme commander) and Geng Zhong  (Zh. 耿忠, army general) who started the Han reconquest of the Western Regions (modern Xinjiang) from the Xiongnu and reasserted Chinese dominance over the Silk Road. The Han army then established military-agricultural colonies (屯田, tuntian), securing supply lines to continue campaigns to the west.
    “Tseou-ku [Dou Gu 窦固] & King-tchong [Geng Zhong 耿忠] took the road to the Tian-shan [Tianshan] Mountains [天山, Mountain of Heaven, Xinjiang]; they encountered the prince of Ou-ÿen [Wu-Yen], whom they defeated, killing more than a thousand of his soldiers. They pursued him as far as Lake Pou-lel-hal [蒲类海, Barkol/Barkul Lake, Xinjiang, north of Tianshan], then taking the northern route, they seized Y-ou [伊吾, Yiwu], where they left a strong garrison and used the rest of their troops to cultivate the land.” Histoire III: 364-65. Nolde 124.

84. The Prince of Ou-yen killed off a thousand – The “Prince of Ou-yen” mentioned by de Mailla, is not corroborated in the standard Chinese records, such as the Book of the Later Han, which only mention a Xiongnu chieftain by name of Beilu, active around this time. The Prince of Wu Yen was indeed a Tartar chieftain who died in 56 BC, thus in a much earlier period. 
    Pound seems to have misread his notes when including the de Mailla passage referring to an expedition prior to the battle of Yiwulu, when commander Dou Gu and his general Geng Zhong defeated a Tartar chieftain: “ils recontrèrent le prince de Ou-ÿen, qu’ils battirent & lui tuèrent plus de mille de ses soldats.” Histoire III: 364-65. [they encountered the Prince OU-ÿen, whom they beat and killed more than a thousand of his soldiers.]

85. Kouang Ou – Emperor Guangwu of Han (Zh. 光武; W/G: Kuang Wu; pinyin: Guangwu, “Luminous Martial Emperor,” reigned 25-57 AD), first emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty. His reign was marked by a series of wars, as rebellions arose within the empire and Tartars attacked from without. Guangwu was a successful warrior who also had sympathy for scholars and literary men. 

86. Han Ming – Emperor Ming of Han (Zh. 劉庄; W/G: Han Ming Ti, pinyin: Han Mingdi, “Brilliant Emperor,” reigned 57-75 AD), is known for having introduced Buddhism into China. Having dreamed that there was a holy man in the West named Foe, he sent ambassadors to discover his teachings and bring back books of his doctrines.   

87. Yang Tchong – Yang Zhong (Zh. 杨忠, fl. A.D. 76), was a member of the privy council of Emperor Zhang of Han (76-89). 

88. Empress Ma Chi – Empress Ma (Zh. 馬皇后; W/G: Ma Shih; pinyin: Ma huánghòu, 30-79 AD), wife of Emperor Ming of Han. She was praised and respected for her austere style, her wisdom and her unwillingness to bestow political favours on her family.
    When in 77, a year of drought, it was suggested out of political opportunism that Heaven was angry that her clan had not been elevated to power, she refused the offered privilege by giving a response that was Confucian in spirit, based on historical precedent: “on the day that the five brothers of Empress Shi were elevated to the dignity of prince, a thick yellow fog covered the entire horizon, and on that year there was no rainfall that would benefit the crops. Until now, we have seen few relatives of an empress, who, having become rich and powerful, did not cause a disturbance.” Histoire III: 378.

89. Ouang Chi – Empress Wang (Zh. 史皇后; W/G Wang Shih, fl. 15 AD). She was the empress of the usurper Wang Mang (reigned 9-23). She arranged that her five brothers be raised to high office. Heaven showed its displeasure by the “thick fog” that the later empress, Ma Chi refers to as the symbol of a bad political decision.
    The time of Wang Mang (who established Xin, a dynasty of one) is considered as an interregnum separating the Western Han dynasty (202 BC to 8 AD) from the Eastern Han (23-220 AD). 
90. ‘history is a schoolbook for princes’ – In spite of the quotation marks, Pound is not translating from the Histoire but providing his own formula based on a passage he was reading: a free paraphrase by de Mailla of the Confucian scholar Kong Xi (孔僖), a descendant of Confucius, active during Emperor Zhang’s reign (75–88 AD). 
    
    According to the Histoire, in 84 AD, Kong Xi, while accused of slandering Emperor Wu of Han, defended himself in a memorial:
    “talking of the great qualities of Emperor Wu of Han, [Kong Xi] said that at the beginning of his reign, he did a lot to re-establish the sane doctrine of Emperors Wen and Jing of Han; but when he then delivered himself to Daoist superstition, he destroyed all the good he had done.” Accused of slandering an illustrious emperor, Kong Xi defended himself by saying: “I talked about the government of Han as history is talking about it. If I had blamed what our historians praised, would not my critique be refuted by the particular impartiality specific to these writers? History is a lesson of princes and of posterity (‘leçon des princes & de la poftérité’): it is made to instruct them and prevent them from making the same mistakes as their predecessors; is it a crime to cite what it has found reprehensible?” Histoire III: 385. Nolde 126.
    
    It is important to note that de Mailla is not translating, but rather freely paraphrasing and embroidering on a Chinese source, a passage from the biography of Kong Xi in The Book of Later Han (Hou Hanshu [Zh. 后汉书·孔僖传] ) and possibly a detailed rendering of the memorial in the Zizhi Tongjian. None of these sources introduce a blaming of Daoism, or the idea that history is a lesson, or a school book for princes; rather the conviction that history is the ultimate bedrock of truth and reference point for past political reality, good or bad.
    Comparing de Mailla's text with the Chinese historical sources also shows that contrary to current assumptions, the French historian was not using a single text, namely the Manchu translation of Zhu Xi’s Digest of the Comprehensive Mirror (Zh. 資治通鑑綱目; Zhizhi Tongjian Gangmu) but combining the existing narrations of the same event across Chinese sources. See this case study in detail, here. 

91. Han Ho Ti – Emperor He of Han (Zh. 漢和帝; W/G Han Ho Ti; pinyin: Han Hedi, reigned 88-106 AD). Pound only refers briefly to the good advice he received during his reign. Histoire III: 400. Nolde 126-7.

92. Han Ngan – Emperor An of Han (Zh. 漢安帝; W/G: Han An Ti; pinyin Han Andi, “Peaceful Emperor,” reigned 106-125 AD). The first years of his reign were dominated by his mother, the Empress Dowager Deng Sui and her family. After her death in 121 AD, the Emperor ordered the execution of her whole clan.

93. Teng-tchi – Deng Zhi (Zh. 邓骘, fl. 107, d.121). The eldest brother of Empress Deng Sui. He was Supreme General (大将军, Da Jiangjun) and regent during Emperor An’s early reign, effectively controlling the government alongside his sister after Emperor He’s death in 106 AD. After Empress Dowager Deng’s death in 121 AD, the Deng family fell from power, and Deng Zhi was demoted to a commoner, later committing suicide (121 AD).

94. Yang-tchin – Yang Zhen (Zh. 杨震, ?–124 AD), prominent philosopher and moralist from the Shaanxi province, also called the “Confucian Sage Official” or the “Confucius of the West.” De Mailla recounts that during the Empress Deng Sui's regency, Deng Zhi had initially overlooked Yang Zhen, but then called him to court and appointed him Governor of  Jingzhou (Zh. 荆州刺史).

    While going to his post, he visited his old friend Wang Mi, who offered him gold, saying “no one will know.” Yang Zhen refused, replying: “Heaven knows, Earth knows, you know, and I know—how can you say no one knows?” thus earning a centuries’ long reputation as a symbol of the uncorruptible official. The episode came to be known as “The Midnight Rejection of Gold” (Zh. 暮夜却金). Histoire III: 404.

95. Léang-ki – Liang Ji (Zh. 梁冀; W/G Liang Chi, d. 159), military general and politician, uncle and prime minister of Emperor Huan of Han. He sent poisoned cakes to his enemies. Finally, Han Huandi sent his men to put Liang Ji to death and to move against his supporters, some 300 mandarins. Liang Ji, realizing what was happening, ate one of his own cakes. All the members of his house were killed and his treasure was confiscated. Histoire III: 450-1.

96. Huon – Emperor Huan of Han (Zh. 漢桓帝; W/G Han Huan Ti; pinyin: Han Huandì, reigned 147-167 AD). In 158, he did away with his corrupt prime minister, Liang Ji, and confiscated his estate, which amounted to 500 million taels. As he had so much money, the emperor distributed most of the sum to the people. 

97. Taoists – Followers of Laozi, ancient Chinese philosopher. He is the author of Daodejing [The Classic of the Way and Its Power] and founder of Daoism.

98. Téou-Chi – Empress Dowager Dong (Zh. 董太后; W/G: Tou Shih; pinyin: Dong tàihòu, fl. 168). She was appointed regent over Emperor Han Lingdi and brought back into government Confucian scholars who had been driven away by the eunuchs. Histoire III: 483-4, 498-99.

99. Han Ling – Emperor Ling of Han (Zh. 漢靈帝; W/G Han Ling Ti; pinyin: Han Lingdi, r. 168-189). His reign was distinguished while Empress Dowager Dong was regent and her father Dou Wu (d. 167) was prime minister. But the chief eunuch persuaded the emperor that Dou Wu was dangerous, so Han Lingdi executed him and banished the Empress Dowager. In 184, a rebellion in the northern provinces started the series of calamities that brought the downfall of the Han dynasty in 221. 

100. three kingdoms – The fall of the Han dynasty was followed by the period of the Three Kingdoms (220-280 AD), when China was divided into three parts: Wei (also known as Cao Wei (Zh. 曹魏) in the north), Wu (or Sun Wu (Zh. 孫吳) in the south, and Shu-Han (Zh. 蜀漢, in the west). It was a period of violence and continuous warfare as each kingdom tried to conquer the other two.  See dynamic map of the Three Kingdoms 190-280 AD.
      
     The period was documented in Records of the Three Kingdoms (Zh. 三國志, pinyin: Sānguózhì) a contemporary history by Chen Shou (Zh. 陳壽; 233–297), and the Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Zh. 三国演义, pinyin: Sānguó Yǎnyì), a novel written by Luo Guanzhong (Zh. 羅貫中, 1330-1400) during the Ming dynasty and considered one of the four classic novels of Chinese literature.

101. booze in the bamboo grove – The seven sages of the bamboo grove, a group who withdrew from the turmoil of the three kingdoms era and chose to live a carefree life in a rural environment. Histoire IV: 130. Nolde 131.

     “As it is traditionally depicted, the group wished to escape the intrigues, corruption and stifling atmosphere of court life during the politically fraught Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. They gathered in a bamboo grove near the house of Ji Kang [Zh. 嵇康, 223–262] in Shanyang [Wei state, now in Henan province] where they enjoyed, and praised in their works, the simple, rustic life. This was contrasted with the politics of court. The Seven Sages stressed the enjoyment of alcoholic beverages, cold-food powder, personal freedom, spontaneity and a celebration of nature. [...] The group's rural life became a common theme for art, and inspired other artists who wished to retreat during times of political upheavals.” Wikipedia: The seven sages.

102. Lieou-Tchin – Liu Chen (Zh. 刘谌; pinyin: Liu Chen, 224-263 AD), fifth son of Liu Shan, the last emperor of the state of Shu Han. When the state under Liu Shan’s inept governance, fell to the state of Wei, the prince, filled with shame and despair, killed his family and himself in 263 AD. Liu Shan himself, demoted to the rank of duke, willingly and seemingly light-heartedly released his grip on power and ended his days peacefully in Luoyang in 271. Histoire IV: 134. Nolde 131.

103. Tçin – Jin dynasty (Zh. 晉, 265-420 AD). The chronology of the dynasty is divided into the Western Jin (265-316 AD) and the Eastern Jin periods (317-420 AD). The Jin dynasty originated in the Wei, after its generals had defeated and annexed the Shu Han kingdom in 263. The Jin would conquer the remaining kingdom of Wu in 280, thus reunifying China and ending the Three Kingdoms period. 

     Western Jin 265-316 AD. 
     Names of emperors mentioned in the canto are linked to further information.

     Order	Title	Chinese	Personal Name	Reign
     1.	Wu of Jin	晉武帝	Sima Yan	266-290
     2.	Hui of Jin	晉惠帝	Sima Zhong	290-307
     3.		司馬倫	Sima Lun	301
     4.	Huai of Jin	晉懷帝	Sima Chi	307-311
     5.	Min of Jin	晉愍帝	Sima Ye	313-316

104. Tou-yu – Du Yu (Zh. 杜預, 222-285), general and politician serving Emperor Wu of Jin. Du Yu coordinated the Wu army and received the surrender of Sun Hao, the last Wu emperor. Pound notes his proposal to build a bridge over the Yellow River. Histoire IV: 159. Nolde 132.

105. TÇIN OU TI – Emperor Wu of Jin (Zh. 晉武帝; W/G Chin Wu-Ti; pinyin: Jin Wu Di, r.236–290). He was the son of Sima Zhao, the general who conquered the state of Shu in 263. He became the first emperor of the new Jin dynasty after forcing Cao Huan, last emperor of the state of Wei, to abdicate to him. After conquering the state of Eastern Wu in 280, he became the emperor of a reunified China. 

106. Yang-Hou – Yang Hu (Zh. 羊祜; 221-278 AD), general and strategist serving Emperor Wu of Jin. Since the emperor needed to take the kingdom of Wu in order to control all China, Yang Hu was directed to plan the campaign, but he died two years before his task was accomplished. Yang Hu appointed Du Yu as his intellectual heir capable of carrying out this military project. 

107. Ouang-siun – Wang Jun (Zh. 王濬; W/G Wang Hsün, 206-286 AD), general serving Emperor Wu of Jin. His mission was to sail the Jin fleet down the Yangtze river from Chengdu to the Wu capital at Jianye (Nanjing). Just as he was approaching his goal, he received order from his fellow general Wang Hun to withdraw to the latters's location on the north of the river to confer on strategy. Wang Jun disregarded the message and sailed straight into the Wu capital, where he received Sun Hao's surrender. Wang Hun felt robbed of his victory and accused Wang Jun of disobedience and of sacking Sun Hao’s palace. To respond to these accusation, Wang Jun wrote in a memorial why he had not turned back when summoned: the wind and weather were unfavourable for sailing up the river, as he had been asked to do. There was no point in returning, as the enemy (Sun Hao, the king of Wu) was on the point of surrender. In his letter, he also pointed out that he did not sack Sun Hao’s palace, the king’s own own men did so before he arrived. Histoire IV: 180-1. Nolde 133.

108. San-chan – location on the Yangtze river where the last decisive battle of the Three Kingdoms period was fought between the Jin forces, led by general Wang Hun, and the Wu kingdom, under the leadership of Sun Hao in late April 280. The Wu army was defeated and General Wang Hun was poised for Sun Hao’s surrender when general Wang Jun simply stole Wang Hun’s thunder by sailing into an already defeated Wu to receive the king’s surrender. Wang Hun entered Jianye a day later, took over the king, and escorted him to the Wei capital, Luoyang.

109. Kiang – The Yangtze river.

110. Ou – Eastern Wu, the last of the Three Kingdoms brought into the empire in 280 AD. After its conquest by Emperor Wu of Jin, taxes in the defeated state were exempted for twenty years. Histoire IV: 179. 

111. Sun-hao – Sun Hao (Zh. 孫皓; 243-283), the fourth king of Wu, an independent kingdom south of the Yangtze. Emperor Wu of Jin spent many years trying to bring the Wu state under his rule, finally succeeding in 280. Sun Hao was a cruel king, and lost the people’s support in his war with Wei. Through the conquest of Wu, China was again reunited and the violent and devastating period of the “Three Kingdoms” was over. Histoire IV: 180-1.

112. Quindecennio – I. Fifteenth anniversary celebration of rule. 

113. Lieou-Y – Liu Yi, fl. 289, was a highly respected adviser to Emperor Wu of Jin, who had begun his reign well but had let the government decline in favor of pleasure and entertainment. When asked by the emperor what former rulers he should be compared with, Liu Yi said Huandi (146-167) and Lingdi of Eastern Han (168-189), with one difference. They sold offices as Jin did, but they put the money into the public coffers while Jin put the money into his own pocket. See also nn.93 and 96. Histoire IV: 184. Nolde 135.

114. Yang Siun – Yang Jun (Zh. 楊駿; W/G Wang Hsun, fl. 289), father-in-law of Emperor Wu of Jin. When the emperor became occupied with the entertainments of the court, which had originally belonged to Sun Hao, he told Yang Jun to govern the kingdom. He was in office during the reign of Emperor Wu and regent for Emperor Hui, his son and successor. Histoire IV: 187. Nolde 136.

115. Tchang – Wang Chang, fl. 290, was a Tartar chieftain who refused to accept a high post from the infamous Yang Jun. Histoire IV: 192-3. Nolde 137.

116. prince Imperial – Jin Huidi, second emperor of the Jin dynasty, r. 290-307. During his time as crown prince, he “operated taverns where he collected the profits from selling wines.” Histoire IV: 208. Nolde 138.

117. Lao Tse – Laozi （Zh. 老子） ca. 571-470 BC, one of China’s most famous teachers, popularly regarded as the founder of Daoism. His teachings centered on the need to become one with dao, “the way.” He professed to have found the clue to all things human and divine. Central to his teaching is the doctrine of inaction which states – “Do nothing, and all things will be done.” Later, pure Taoism became mixed with magic, astrology, alchemy, and the search for an elixir of eternal life. 

118. Hoai Ti – Emperor Huai of Jin (Zh. 晉懷帝; Wade/Giles Chin Huai Ti; pinyin: Jin Huaidi, reigned 307-311 AD), was a very intelligent emperor who was versed in the arts of government, but he had no success in war with the prince of the Eastern Sea (who was to bring the Eastern Chin into prominence). Because the emperor was so poor a commander in battle, he was eventually deposed. 

119. Min Ti – Emperor Min of Jin (Zh. 晉愍帝; W/G Chin Min Ti; pinyin: Jin Mindi, r. 313-318). His reign was disturbed by attacks of Tartars who in 317 captured the capital and made the emperor a prisoner. Liu Cong humiliated him by dressing him as a soldier with pike, to walk before his horse, like a page at a hunting party. Histoire IV: 292-3. Nolde 138. 

120. made lackeys - “The Jin dynasty was severely damaged after the War of the Eight Princes from 291–306. During the reigns of Emperor Huai and Emperor Min, the country was put into grave danger with the uprising of the northern non-Han people collectively known as the Five Barbarians, when numerous nomadic tribal groups resettled in China’s north and northwest […]. Their armies almost destroyed the dynasty in the Disaster of Yongjia of 311, when the Five Barbarians sacked Luoyang. Chang’an met a similar fate in 316.  
     However, a scion of the royal house, Sima Rui, Prince of Langya, fled south of the Huai River to salvage what was left in order to sustain the empire, establishing himself as Emperor Yuan of Jin. Cementing their power in the south, the Jin established Jiankang on the existing site of Jianke (now Nanjing) as their new capital, renaming the dynasty as the Eastern Jin since the new capital was located southeast of Luoyang.” Wikipedia: Northern and Southern Dynasties.

121. Lieou-Tsong – Liu Cong also known as Emperor Zhaowu of Han (Zh. 漢昭武帝, d. 317 AD), was the son of the Tartar prince Liu Yuan, who had invaded North China about 308. He was an emperor of the Xiongnu-led Chinese Han-Zhao dynasty.
     During his reign, the Han-Zhao brought about the fall of the Western Jin dynasty, leading to its re-establishment in the south as the Eastern Jin dynasty at Jiankang in 318. His forces conquered the ancient Chinese capitals of Luoyang and Chang’an. He also captured Emperor Huai of Jin and Emperor Min of Jin, whom he had executed. Liu Cong considered himself the heir to the Han dynasty, and all China North of the Yangtze came under Tartar control.
     Pound does not follow these changes in the north, but continues to trace out the decay of the Jin dynasty in the south.
     
     Eastern Jin dynasty, 317-420.
     Names of emperors mentioned in the canto are linked to further information.

     Order	Title	Chinese	Personal Name	Reign
     1.	Yuan of Jin	晉元帝	Sima Rui	317-323
     2.	Ming of Jin	晉明帝	Sima Shao	323-325
     3.	Cheng of Jin	晉成帝	Sima Yan	325-342
     4.	Kang of Jin	晉康帝	Sima Yue	342-344
     5.	Mu of Jin	晉穆帝	Sima Dan	344-361
     6.	Ai of Jin	晉哀帝	Sima Pi	361-365
     7	Fei of Jin	晉廢帝	Sima Yi	365-371
     8.	Jianwen	晉簡文帝	Sima Yu	371-372
     9.	Xiaowu	晉孝武帝	Sima Yao	372-396
     10.	An	晉安帝	Sima Dezong	396-418
     11.	Gong	晉恭帝	Sima Dewen	419-420

122. Tçin Tching – Emperor Cheng of Jin (Zh. 晉成帝; pinyin: Jin Chengdi, reigned 325-342 AD), came to the throne at the age of five and died at 22. He was known for loving the people, but the hopes for a long reign were dashed. Histoire IV: 365. Nolde 139.

123. Tçin Ngan – Emperor Ai of Jin (Zh. 晉哀帝; pinyin: Jin Aidi, reigned 361-365 AD). “His health had been ruined by the potions which the followers of Lao·tse ... had given him.” Histoire IV: 415. Nolde 139.

124. Tçin Hiao – Emperor Xiaowu of Jin (Zh. 晉孝武帝; W/G Chin Hsiao Wu Ti; pinyin: Jin Xiaowudi, reigned 372-396 AD). His reign was plagued with civil wars, for Jin was declining in power and the Liu Song dynasty was about to appear. This emperor is noted for his poor knowledge of female psychology. He told one of his wives that as she was nearing 30, she should think of retiring so that he could replace her with a younger girl. He was making a joke, but the wife didn’t think it was funny. She got him drunk and then strangled him. Histoire IV: 500. Nolde 139. 

125. piquée de ce badinage – F. “stung by this banter.” 

126. SUNG rising – Liu Song, the eighth dynasty (420-479 AD) was founded by Liu Yu (Zh. 劉裕) in 420 as the first of the Southern Dynasties period that lasted until 589, when it was replaced by the Sui.      
     “In the north, the Five Barbarians established numerous kingdoms, leading to the period being known as the Sixteen Kingdoms. Eventually, the Northern Wei conquered the rest of the northern states in 439.
     Although the Eastern Jin and successive southern dynasties were well-defended from the northern states by placement of naval fleets along the Yangtze, there were still various problems faced with building and maintaining military strength. […] The Eastern Jin dynasty fell not because of external invasion, however, but because General Liu Yu seized the throne from Emperor Gong and established himself as Emperor Wu of Liu Song (r. 420–422), which officially began the Northern and Southern dynasties.” Wikipedia – Northern and Southern Dynasties. 
     
     

     Southern Dynasties 420-589 AD
     Emperors that Pound mentions are marked in green.           

     Order	Dynasties	Temple Names of Emperors	Personal name	Reign	Period
     1	Liu Song  劉宋	Emperor Wu Emperor Wen Emperor Xiaowu Emperor Ming Emperor Houfei Emperor Shun	Liu Yu 劉裕 Liu Yilong 劉義隆 Liu Jun, 劉駿 Liu Yu, 劉彧 Liu Yu, 劉昱 Liu Zhun, 劉準	420-422 424-453 453-464 465-472 473-477 477-479	420-479
     2.	Southern Qi 南齊	Emperor Gao 齊高帝 Emperor Wu 齊武帝 Emperor Ming 齊明帝 Emperor He 齊和帝	Xiao Daocheng 蕭道成 Xiao Ze 蕭賾 Xiao Luan 蕭鸞 Xiao Baorong 蕭寶融	479-482 482-493 494-498 501-502	479-502
     3.	Liang 梁	Emperor Wu of Liang Emperor Jianwen of Liang Emperor Yuan of Liang Emperor Jing of Liang	Xiao Yan 蕭衍 Xiao Gang 蕭綱 Xiao Yi 蕭繹 Xiao Fangzhi 蕭方智	502–549  549–551  552–555  555–557	502-557
     4.	Chen 陳	Emperor Wu of Chen Emperor Wen of Chen Emperor Xuan of Chen Chen Shubao	Chen Baxian (陳霸先) Chen Qian (陳蒨) Chen Xu (陳頊) Huángnú (黃奴)	557-559 559-566 569-582 583-589	557-589

     
     

     

127. Lieou-yu – Liu Yu, personal name of Emperor Wu of Liu Song (Zh. (劉)宋武帝 363-422 AD), founder of the Liu Song dynasty, south of the Yangtze. He came from a very poor family – his mother died shortly after his birth and his father could not pay for a nurse and was on the point of abandoning him. Histoire IV: 513. In 399, he enlisted in the imperial army and was given a command of 70 men. By 416, he was made commander in chief and Duke of Song.

128. last Tçin in a Bhud mess – In 419, Liu Yu set up Gong of Jin as emperor. After sixteen months, he was forced to abdicate and was murdered. Initially, he was offered poison to take his own life. The emperor refused, saying that his Bhuddist beliefs forbid him to take his own life, as suicide bars the possibility of transmigration. He was then choked with his bedspread. Histoire V: 4. Nolde 140.

129. KAO-TSOU – Emperor Wu of (Liu) Song (Zh. 宋武帝; W/G: Kao Tsung; pinyin: Gaozu, r. 420-423), formerly Liu Yu, founder of the Liu Song dynasty. See preceding notes. Following de Mailla who mentions that the new emperor preferred to distribute to the people the funds he would have needed for magnificence at the palace, Pound notes his frugality in the canto. Histoire V: 5-6. Nolde 141. 

130. Li-Chan wd/ not leave his mountain – Mount Lu (Zh. 庐山; pinyin: Lushan), mountain range in Jianxi province, SE of China. It is a spiritual landmark, as many Buddhist and Daoist temples as well as Confucian landmarks are located within its site.
     
     Pound is mixing up the name of the mountain with that of Lei Cizong (Zh. 雷次宗; 386-448), a Confucian scholar and educator during the Liu Song dynasty. Histoire V: 45. Nolde 141. 
     Lei Cizong was deeply involved in classical studies, particularly the Classic of Rites (Lijing), The Poetry Classic (Shijing), and Classic of Filial Piety (Xiaojing). In 438, Emperor Wen of Liu Song established the Four Schools of Learning: (儒学; Rúxué, Confucian studies); 玄学 (Xuánxué, Metaphysical studies); 史学 (Shǐxué, Historiography); and 文学 (Wénxué, Literary studies), in the capital Jiankang (modern Nanjing). Lei Cizong was appointed as the head of the Confucian School, which had a focus on classical texts.
     
     Before his imperial appointment, Lei had spent time studying Buddhism under the guidance of monk Huiyuan (慧远, 334–416) at Mount Lu, a major center of Buddhist learning. After organising the school for Emperor Wen, he returned to the mountain, resuming his scholarly and semi-reclusive life. This symbolized a dual engagement with Confucianism (imperial service) and Buddhism (personal devotion). His teacher, Huiyuan, had famously resisted imperial pressure to bow to secular authority, advocating for monastic independence—a stance that may have influenced Lei’s own retreat from court life.
     
     Lei Cizong's life is recounted in the Book of Song (宋书, Sòng Shū), compiled by Shen Yue (沈约, 441–513) during the Liang dynasty. Chapter 93 (宋书·卷九十三·隐逸传, "Biographies of Hermits") includes Lei Cizong’s official biography, detailing his Confucian scholarship, his leadership of the imperial academy in 438, and his later retreat from public life. See Chinese original. 

131. Et les Indiens disent que Boudha – F. “And the Indians say that Buddha.” Refers to a folktale which says that Buddha was the result of the miraculous union of a chaste queen, called Mayé and a white elephant. Histoire V: 53. Nolde 142. The change from Mayé to Nana is Pound's own.

132. Prince of Ouei – Tuoba Tao (Zh. 北魏太武帝, pinyin: Běiwèi tài wǔdì, “Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei,” 408-452), was the third emperor of China's Northern Wei dynasty. During his reign, the Northern Wei roughly doubled in size and unified all of northern China in 439, thus ending the Sixteen Kingdoms period and, together with the southern dynasty Liu Song, starting the Southern and Northern Dynasties period of Chinese history. The Tuoba clan was of the Xianbei ethnicity, a conferederation of tribes from what is today's Mongolia.
     
     
     "The Sixteen Kingdoms (simplified Chinese: 十六国; traditional Chinese: 十六國; pinyin: Shíliù Guó), less commonly the Sixteen States, was a chaotic period in Chinese history from AD 304 to 439, when northern China fragmented into a series of short-lived dynastic states. The majority of these states were founded by the “Five Barbarians,” non-Han peoples who had settled in northern and western China during the preceding centuries, and had launched a series of rebellions against the Western Jin dynasty in the early 4th century. However, several of the states were founded by the Han people, and all of the states—whether ruled by Xiongnu, Xianbei, Di, Jie, Qiang, Han, or others—took on Han-style dynastic names. The states frequently fought against both one another and the Eastern Jin dynasty, which succeeded the Western Jin in 317 and ruled southern China. The period ended with the unification of northern China in 439 by the Northern Wei, a dynasty established by the Xianbei Tuoba clan. This occurred 19 years after the Eastern Jin collapsed in 420, and was replaced by the Liu Song dynasty. Following the unification of the north by Northern Wei, the Northern and Southern dynasties era of Chinese history began." Wikipedia: Northern and Southern Dynasties.
     
     In the canto, Pound consistently followed the Jin dynasty from its establishment in 265 to 318, and its transformation into the Liu Song dynasty up to the reign of Emperor Wen (424-453) without paying attention what had happened in the north, especially after the withdrawal of the Eastern Jin to the south of the Yangtze in 420. Liu Song’s Emperor Wen’s Northern contemporary was the “Prince of Wei” as Pound calls him, the ruler of the Northern Wei state, Tuoba Tao, or Emperor Tai Wu. See also map at n. 126.

133. put out hochangs – Following de Mailla, Pound begins to outline the beginnings of Buddhism in Northern China during the period of the Wei dynasty (439-534). He is refering to Emperor Taiwu’s edict of 444, banning Buddhism in Wei. This edict is regarded as the first out of the four Buddhist persecutions in China.
     "From now on, from the princes down to the humblest people, whoever provides subsistence to the Ho-Chang and to the shamen of the taoists will be deprived of his dignity or his occupation, or receive corporal punishment if he is a commoner. Let those who harbor some in their homes expel them within the next two months. If after that time they are not expelled, let the family who kept them be apprehended. The members of that family will have to be killed wihout sparing anyone.”  Histoire V: 50-1. Nolde 142.
     In his footnote to V: 50, de Mailla provides the most detailed indictment of Buddhism, seen from his own perspective. He also lumps together daoism and Buddhism; though Tuoba Tao banned Bhuddism, he was a devout daoist. 

134. hochangs – name stemming from a transcription of the Chinese term “héshàng” (Zh. 和尚), which is the common, informal word for a Buddhist monk serving as a spiritual guide. The term was adopted into Chinese via Central Asian Buddhist texts and became the standard way to address Buddhist monks. It is used derogatively by de Mailla in Histoire V: 50. Nolde 142.

135. shamen – Shamans.  
     “Ce nom de Chamen ou Samen a passé des Indes à la Chine avec la religion de Fo ou Boudha & ne signifie rien dans la langue Chinoise. On désigne en général ces religieux sous le titre de Ou-hié, c’est-à-dire de gens qui communiquenent de bouche avec les esprits. Hié le dit des religieux & Ou des religieufes.” Histoire V: 50. See also Wikipedia: Wu [shaman].
     [this name of shaman which has travelled from the Indies to China with the religion around Fo, or Buddha, does not mean anything in the Chinese language which generally calls shamans Ou-hié, [Zh 巫覡; wu xi] people who communicate orally with the spirits. Xi is used for male shamans and wu for female.] De Mailla’s “des Indes” may refer to what is now called East Indies, the Indian subcontinent and South East Asia. 

     

136. Ouen Ti – Emperor Wen of Song (Zh. (劉)宋文帝; pinyin: Liu Song Wendi, reigned 424-453 AD), ruler of the Liu Song state south of the Yangtze. Pound is pointing out in a brief intervention that at the time of the edict against Buddhism in the north, the south of the Yangtze was ruled by Emperor Wen, of the Liu Song dynasty. The next line, about the artisans, returns to and quotes from the Wei edict of 444. 

137. Let artisans teach their sons crafts – Pound continues to quote from Tuoba Tao’s edict against Buddhism, pointing out the role of education in the protection against it:
     “Let all the princes, the great officials, and general mandarins of my state send their children to the colleges, so that they may be instructed in the sane doctrine, that they study the Ching, history, and the fine documents of the emperors, our predecessors. Let the artisans, tradesmen, and shopkeepers be content to teach their professions to their children, and not take upon themselves, of their own authority, to build any college.” Histoire V: 53-55. Nolde 142.
     Pound is here quoting selectively, adjusting the above measures, advised and implemented by Tuoba Tao’s prime minister Cui Hao, to his own educational agenda. Pound fully understood and appreciated the role of crafts and hands-on intelligence in education, relaying this insight to Aristotle, and calling it τἐχνη [H. tekne] (GK, 351). See also his stress on τἐχνη in canto 85/570. 

138. found a great store of arms in a temple – Two years after the edict, in 446, Cui Hao found by accident a store of weapons in a Buddhist temple, which led to the assumption that Buddhists were involved in a rebellion. Persecution started for real, with killings and confiscations. Histoire V: 57. Nolde 142. See also Wikipedia: four persecutions.

139. censor – Pound is making a brief reference to a famous case that happened in 448 AD, during the reign of Emperor Wen of Liu Song. The imperial censor He Shangzhi (Zh. 何尚之, 382–460) whose duty it was to investigate the abuses of officials, made a petition to the emperor recounting those of Judge Yu Pingzhi, known for his extreme greed, harsh judgments, and abuse of power. As Emperor Wen did not pay attention at first, He Shangzhi made several copies of the memorial and distributed them to the high officials around him, forcing the emperor to take action. Histoire V: 60. Nolde 143.

140. placet – F. “petition.” Derived from L. placet, “it pleases.” 

141. Yupingtchi – Yu Pingzhi (Zh. 虞平之; fl. 448), president of the judicial tribunal under Emperor Wen Di of Liu Song. He was so harsh and intolerant in his judgements that he ruined multitudes of poor people. After he was investigated by imperial censor He Shangzhi, the emperor finally had to remove him from office and degrade him to commoner status. The case stayed in historical documents as a famous instance of professional honesty versus corruption in the imperial system.

142. they ordered more war machines – In 450, war broke out between the Wei and Liu Song. Histoire V: 61-2. Nolde 144.
     The turmoil both in war matters and domestic policy affairs led to the assassination of the Emperor Tai Wu of Wei by a eunuch, Zong Ai, in 452. In the South, Emperor Wen of Liu Song was murdered a year later, by his own son, Liu Shao. 

143. à la Valturio – F. “In the manner of Valturio.” Roberto Valturio (1405-1475) was a key scholar employed at the court of Sigismondo Malatesta in Rimini and buried in one of the sarcophagi lining the Tempio Malatestiano. He is the author of a treatise on war called De Re militari [On military matters] (1472). The book included several drawings of siege machines.

144. OU TI – Emperor Xiaowu of Song (Zh. 宋孝武帝; W/G Hsiao Wu Ti; pinyin: Xiaowu Di, r. 453-464), third son of Emperor Wen of Liu Song. He took power after his older brother Liu Shao assassinated their father in 453. 

145. Yen Yen – Yan Yanzhi (Zh. 颜延之, 384–456), a prominent Minister of Ceremonies (Zh. 光禄大夫) and Imperial Secretary (Zh. 中书侍郎); poet and scholar who served under Emperors Wu, Wen, and Xiaowu of the Liu Song dynasty. He was one of the most famous literary figures of his time and a model of modesty, frugality, and disinterestedness. Histoire V: 103-4. Nolde 146.

146. Ouei’ prince went pussyfoot – The Kingdom of Wei to the north attacked in 450, but since Song reacted strongly “the Wei forces withdrew.”

147. Tien – “heaven.” It was an old tradition that in the “spring rites” the emperor should plough a furrow to ask Heaven for a good harvest; and that the empress set a good example by the ceremony of feeding silkworms. 

148. OU went gay – De Mailla notes that towards the end of his reign Emperor Xiaowu spent ever more time in banquets and entertainment. The excesses led to his premature death at 35. Histoire V: 113. Nolde 147. See also n. 144.
149. SUNG ended – The dynasty of Liu Song ended in 479 AD when Xiao Daocheng forced the Emperor Shun of Liu Song (Zh. 宋顺帝) into yielding the throne to him, ending Liu Song and starting Southern Qi, as its Emperor Gao. The dynasty's name was taken from Xiao’s feudal domain, which roughly occupied the same territory as the Warring States era Kingdom of Qi. The dynasty, which is counted as the second of five Southern dynasties, lasted for 23 years (479-502). 

150. Kao – Emperor Gao of Southern Qi (Zh. (南)齊高帝, 479-483) founder of the Southern Qi dynasty (479-502). 

151. Kao’s son that was Siao – Xiao Ze  (Zh. 蕭賾; 440-493), personal name of Emperor Wu of Southern Qi (Zh. 南齊武帝; pinyin: Nánqí wǔdì, r. 482-493) son of Emperor Gao of Qi.

152. collecter of vases – Reference to Prince Xiao Ziliang (Zh. 蕭子良, 460-494), the second son of Emperor Wu of Qi. He was devoted to culture: he collected antique vases and manuscripts, engaged scholars in debate, and was a devout Buddhist. Histoire V: 161. Nolde 147-8. See also n. 154.

153. Topas were in Ouei country – The people of Topa, of Turkic origin, who founded the kingdom of Northern Wei (386-534). John Nolde remarked that Pound made this interpolation as a reminder that war with Wei was always a danger and that indulging in vase collecting and Buddhist disputes were weakening the dynasty. Nolde 148.

154. Tan Tchin – Fan Zhen (Zh. 范縝, c. 450–515), Chinese scholar who flourished around 484, during the reign of Emperor Wu of Southern Qi. In his book Shen Mie Lun (Zh. 神滅論, “On the Annihilation of the Spirit”) he argued against the Buddhist concept of an immortal soul and claimed that the spirit (Zh. 神, shen) dies with the body.
     Relying on De Mailla, Pound includes some of Fan Zhen’s arguments in his debate with Prince Xiao Ziliang (Zh. 蕭子良) in 484. The prince was a devout Buddhist patron - he gathered scholars to defend Buddhist doctrines, but Fan Zhen openly challenged them.
     De Mailla quotes from Fan Zhen’s argument: “La figure de l’homme est comme l’enseigne des pensées, & les pensées sont comme les instrumens dont elle se sert pour entreprendre quelque chose. Les pensées sont au corps ce que le tranchant est à un sabre. Lorsque le sabre est détruit, le tranchant ne l’est-il pas également?”
     [“The form of man is like the banner of thoughts, and thoughts are like the instruments it uses to take action. Thoughts are to the body what sharpness is to a sword. When the sword is destroyed, is the sharpness not also destroyed?”] Histoire V: 162. Nolde 148.

155. OU Ti of LEANG had a renaissance – Emperor Wu of Liang (Zh. 梁武帝; W/G Wu Ti, pinyin: Liang Wudi, r. 502-549), overthrew the Qi dynasty and founded the Liang, the third of the Southern dynasties. Pound notes that the emperor was fond of literature and sought to restore it after the neglect in previous dynasties. Histoire V: 219. Nolde 149.
     A good emperor who helped his people during the famine and purged the court of corruption, he became a Buddhist and expanded it in his kingdom by building temples and allowing monasteries to proliferate. In 527, Wudi became a Buddhist monk himself, a fact that Pound references further down by sayuing “OU TI went into cloister” Histoire V: 279. Nolde 152. 

156. Liang – The Liang dynasty (Zh. 梁朝; pinyin: Liáng cháo, 502–557), also known as the Southern Liang (Zh. 南梁; pinyin: Nán Liáng), was the third of the Southern Dynasties during China’s Southern and Northern Dynasties period. It was located in South China and succeeded by the Chen dynasty in 557. 

157. Snow lay in Ping Tching till June – Pound is moving his lens from South to North, from Emperor Wudi of Liang to his Northern counterpart in Wei, Tuoba Hong, or Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern kingdom of Wei, whose reign just preceded his. Pingcheng (Zh. 平城) the capital of  Wei from 386,  was in what is now Datong in the province of Shanxi. The emperor hated its harsh winters, so he moved the capital to Luoyang in 494.

158. Topa Hong, who was Lord of the Earth called himself Yuen – Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei (Zh. 北魏孝文帝, personal name Tuoba Hong, r. 471-499). Though he was a Tartar king, he pursued a politics of Sinicization, and changed his family name to Yuan in 496 AD.

159. 46 tablets – “The Stone Classics,” a historic Confucian monument. Several times in Chinese history, the Confucian classics were incised in stone in exemplary calligraphy which were placed in the Imperial Academies at Luoyang and Chang’an. De Mailla mentions that the 46 stone tablets had been erected by Emperor Ling of Han (168–189 AD). In 517, during Empress Hu’s reign, they were torn down and used to build a Buddhist temple.  Histoire V: 242. Nolde 152.
     
     “In 175 CE, the books Yijing 易經, Shangshu 尚書, Shijing 詩經, Yili 儀禮, Gongyangzhuan 公羊傳 and Lunyu 論語 were incised into 46 stone slabs. The stelae were erected on the compound in front of the gate to the National University (taixue 太學) in the capital Luoyang 洛陽 (modern Luoyang, Henan). These were the Xiping Stone Classics 熹平石經, called so because they were erected during the Xiping reign-period 熹平 (172-177). The text had been calligraphed by Cai Yong 蔡邕.” The Stone Classics. 
     
     Pound used rubbings of later stone tablets, incised in 833-37 AD, during the Tang dynasty, for his 1951 translation of three classics (The Great Digest, The Unwobbling Pivot, and The Analects). The fourth book, Mencius, was not included in the Tang tablets because it had not acquired the classic status at that time. See A. Fang’s “Note on the Stone-Classics” in Con 11-15.

160. Yo Lang – Luoyang. In 494, Emperor Xiaowen, the ruler of the northern Wei, moved his capital from Pingcheng to the ancient Chinese capital of Luoyang. Through religious stone carving, translation of Buddhist scriptures, and constructions of temples and monasteries, the city acquired a strong Buddhist profile during the Northern Wei and Tang dynasties. See Longmen grottoes. Binyang caves. 
     Strongly contested during numerous military conflicts, the capital was moved again to Yecheng in 534. 

161. Foe – the name of Buddha and more commonly the name given to Buddhist priests [foes, [Deist, in French transliteration] and to Buddhism. De Mailla explained:
     “The Chinese name for the god honored by these religious figures is Fo, which is a contraction—or rather, an abbreviation—of the word Fo-to, the Chinese pronunciation of the name Buddha, though corrupted. This is because it is known that the Chinese language does not include the letters B and D, substituting them with F and T, which are formed by the same organs of speech.” Histoire V: 50. 

162. Hou-chi – Empress Dowager Hu (Zh. 胡太后, r. 515-528) ruled the kingdom of Northern Wei as regent for her son, whom she poisoned when he reached adulthood. 

163. Ou Ti – Emperor Wu, founder of the Liang dynasty, finally became a Buddhist monk in 527 and left the kingdom to its fate. See nn. 151, 155, 156.

164. Ouen Ti – Emperor Wen of Sui (Zh. 隋文帝; r. 581-604). He reunited China, founded the Sui dynasty and inaugurated a period of prosperity. He revised the law code: Histoire V: 459. Nolde 153. In 583, he filled the granaries of the capital: Histoire V: 465. Nolde 154.
     
     He began the construction of the Grand Canal and is referred to as the “old king” in canto 49: And the canal still goes to Ten-Shi/ Though the old king built it for pleasure.”   

165. Yang-kien – Yang Jian (Zh. 楊堅; W/G Yang Ch’ien; pinyin: Yang Jian), personal name of Emperor Wen of Sui.

166. Soui – Sui, a minor state that later became the twelfth dynasty, Sui (589-618).
     
     The Sui dynasty, 589-618 AD.

     Order	Posthumous name	Birth name	Reign
     1.	Wéndì (文帝)	Yáng Jiān (楊堅)	581–604
     2.	Yángdì (煬帝) or Míngdì (明帝)	Yáng Guǎng (楊廣)	604–618
     3.	Gōngdì (恭帝)	Yang You	617–618
     4.	Gōngdì (恭帝)	Yang Tong	618–619

167. Sou-ouei – Su Wei (Zh. 蘇威; 542–623), adviser to Emperor Wen of Sui.

168. Heou – Chen Shubao or  Hou Zhu of Chen, (Zh. 陳後主, pinyin: Chén hòu zhǔ, “last ruler of Chen,” reigned 582-589 AD), was the last Emperor of Chen, the last of the Southern Dynasties. Not heeding the signs that his rule was at its end, this prince pursued a course of extravagance and debauchery. He built three huge buildings [the three Towers] for his favorite concubines. See Histoire V: 466-7. Nolde 154.
     “In 584, Chen Shubao built three particularly luxurious pavilions within his palace—Linchun Pavilion (臨春閣), Jieqi Pavilion (結綺閣), and Wangxian Pavilion (望仙閣), residing himself at Linchun Pavilion, while having Consort Zhang reside at Jieqi Pavilion and Consorts Gong and Kong share Wangxian Pavilion. He often spent his days feasting with his concubines, headed by Consort Zhang, as well as those ladies in waiting and officials who had literary talent (including Jiang Zong, whom he made prime minister, Kong Fan, and Wang Cuo 王瑳), having those officials and ladies in waiting sing or write poetry to praise his concubines' beauty. Two of the particularly known songs, Yushu Houting Hua (玉樹後庭花) and Linchun Yue (臨春樂), were written to praise the beauties of Consorts Zhang and Kong.” Wikipedia: Chen Dynasty.

169. Mt. Tai’ Chan – Mount Tai, sacred mountain of China in Western Shandong Province where emperors climbed to pray to Heaven for their dynasty. 
     Pound's phrasing here shows that at the time of composition, he did not have even the barest notions of Chinese. "Chan" [French transliteration of 山, pinyin shān] means "mountain." He should have said either "Mt. Tai" or else "Tai Chan." See also the entry on Yang Yuhuan, n.215.

170.  Gin Cheou – Renshou was a summer palace built by Emperor Wen of Sui in 593 AD in the mountains of Linyou, 160 km north-west of the capital Chang’an. It proved to be more magnificent than expected and was developed during the Tang dynasty to The Palace of Nine Perfections (Zh. 九成宮 pinyin: Jiucheng) in 631.  

171. Touti-Kahn – Tuli Kohan, fl. 593, leader of Kohan, of the Tu-chilei, a Turkic tribe that had established its power in what is now Mongolia. He was given a daughter by Emperor Wen of Sui, which eventually led to the Sui domination over this border territory. 

172. Ouen – Emperor Wen of Sui, see n. 165, 166, 170, 171. 

     

173. Yang (kouang) Ti – Emperor Yang of Sui (Zh.隋煬帝, 569-618). Histoire V: 502-4. Nolde 137.    
     “Emperor Yang, ruling from 604 to 618, committed to several large construction projects, most notably the completion of the Grand Canal, and the reconstruction of the Great Wall, a project which took the lives of nearly six million workers. He also ordered several military expeditions that brought Sui to its greatest territorial extent, one of which, the conquest of Champa in what is now central and southern Vietnam, resulted in the death of thousands of Sui soldiers from malaria. These expeditions, along with a series of disastrous campaigns against Goguryeo (one of the three kingdoms of Korea), left the empire bankrupt and the populace in revolt. With northern China in turmoil, Emperor Yang spent his last days in Jiangdu (江都, in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu), where he was eventually strangled in a coup led by his general Yuwen Huaji. Despite his accomplishments, Emperor Yang is generally considered by traditional historians to be one of the worst tyrants in Chinese history and the reason for the Sui Dynasty's relatively short rule. His failed campaigns against Goguryeo, and the conscriptions levied to man them, coupled with increased taxation to finance these wars, and civil unrest as a result of this taxation, ultimately led to the downfall of the dynasty.” Wikipedia: Yang of Sui.
     
     Pound was impressed by Yang’s public works, especially the canal, and possibly referenced him or his father as the “old king” in canto 49: “this canal goes still to TenShi/ though the old king built it for pleasure.” 

174. Kou-choui – de Mailla mentions the linkage of streams near Luoyang, namely the Gu and Luo rivers. Histoire V: 504. Nolde 137.

175. Hoang Ho – Zh. 黄河; pinyin Huánghé, The Yellow River. 

176. Wall was from Yu-lin to Tsé-ho – The Sui dynasty, especially Emperor Yang, initiated seven extensions of the Great Wall. Pound mentions the stretch from Yulin in inner Mongolia to Zihe (today’s Hunhe River in Inner Mongolia) that the Sui built in 607. Sui Dynasty wall. Histoire V: 509. Nolde 137.

177. Pei-kiu – Pei Ju (Zh. 裴矩, 548–627) prominent diplomat, cartographer, and high-ranking official during the Sui (581–618) and early Tang dynasties (618–907). He played a crucial role in Sui-Tang foreign policy, particularly in relations with the Western Regions (西域, Xiyu, Central Asia) and the Northern Nomads (like the Göktürks). He was stationed in Zhangye (张掖, Gansu), a key Silk Road hub, where he supervised foreign merchants (including Sogdians, Turks, and Persians) and ensured smooth trade. Knowing Emperor Yang’s fascination with exotic lands, Pei Ju collected intelligence from foreign merchants, compiling geographical, political, and cultural records of Central Asia. He created an “Illustrated Account of the Western Regions” (Zh. 西域图记, Xiyu Tuji) with detailed maps and three-volume report on 44 Central Asian kingdoms, including routes: the three main Silk Road branches (Northern, Southern, and Desert Routes); geography, such as major landmarks like the Kunlun Mountains, Mengxi River, and the Caspian Sea (Zh. 西海, Xihai); customs & politics, such as descriptions of local rulers, military strength, and trade goods. This work became a key strategic guide for the Sui Dynasty’s westward expansion. Histoire V: 510-11. Nolde 158. 

     After the fall of the Sui Dynasty in 618 AD, Pei Ju switched allegiance to the Tang and served Emperor Gaozu (Zh. 李渊) and Emperor Taizong (Zh. 李世民) as advisor on Turkic Affairs: he helped the Tang deal with Eastern Göktürk rebellions, advocating for a mix of military force and diplomacy, thus crucially contributing to the Tang’s eventual defeat of the Göktürks (630 AD). Under Emperor Taizong, he became Minister of Revenue (Zh. 户部尚书; pinyin: hù bù shàngshū) and later, Left Grand Councilor (Zh. 左仆射; pinyin: Zuǒ pū shè).

178.  Si-yu – Xiyu, the Western regions, see n. 75. 

179. Kong – Emperor Gong of Sui. (Zh. 隋恭帝; r. 618-619) was the last emperor of the Sui dynasty, one of the two puppets who were set up as emperors after the death of Emperor Yang of Sui in 617. Both were executed within the year by the Li family, who rebelled against the Sui and founded the Tang dynasty.

180. abuleia – L. “paralysis of the will.” Emperor Gong of Sui was a Buddhist and submitted to his own execution without resistance, just praying that in his next reincarnation, he would not be reborn as an emperor. Histoire V: 564. Nolde 158.

181. Tang – T’ang, thirteenth dynasty (618- 907). 
     
     

     Emperors of the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907 AD).
     Names of emperors mentioned in the canto are linked to further information.

     Order	Name	Notes	Reign Time (years)
     1	Tang Gaozu (Li Yuan)	A chancellor of the Sui Dynasty (581 - 618) who rose in rebellion; the founder of the Tang Dynasty.	618 - 626
     2	Tang Taizong (Li Shimin)	The second son of Li Yuan; a bold and powerful ruler good at both military strategy and Chinese calligraphy; his reign was called the Zhenguan Reign, which started the glorious period of Tang.	626 - 649
     3	Tang Gaozong (Li Zhi)	The 9th son of Li Shimin; considered a weak ruler because he was assisted by Empress Wu Zetian for most of his reign.	650 - 683
     4	Tang Zhongzong (Li Xi'an)	Son of Lizhi and Wu Zetian; He was on the throne for two months in 684 before Wu deposed him. After Wu herself was deposed in 705, he ruled for five years with Empress Wei's interfering in court affairs.	684, 705 - 710
     5	Tang Ruizong (Li Dan)	The eighth son of Li Zhi and Wu Zetian; the fifth and ninth emperor of the Tang Dynasty; His first ruling period came after Wu deposed Li Xi'an. His second period of reign began after the coup by his sister Princess Taiping and his son Li Longji (later Xuanzong).	684 - 690, 710 - 712
     Zhou Dynasty (690 - 705)
     6	Wu Zetian	At first, she was a concubine of Emperor Taizong. Later, she became Gaozong’s concubine after Taizong died. Finally, she won the power struggle and became the only woman emperor in Chinese history.	690 - 705
     Continuation of the Tang Dynasty
     7	Tang Shangdi (Li Chongmao)	Son of Zhongzong; was put on the throne by Empress Wei after she poisoned Zhongzong in 710; After ruling briefly, he was forced to give the throne to his uncle Ruizong in a coup launched by Princess Taiping and Li Longji.	710
     8	Tang Xuanzong (Li Longji)	Also called Emperor Ming of Tang; son of Ruizong; His reign was the longest in the Tang Dynasty and was known as the Heyday of Kaiyuan because of the unprecedented prosperity. His infatuation with his consort, Yan Guifei caused neglect of duty in his later years.	712 - 756
     9	Tang Suzong (Li Heng)	Son of Xuanzong; He spent his reign suppressing the An Shi Rebellion. During his reign, eunuchs began to gain power.	756 - 762
     10	Tang Daizong (Li Yu)	Son of Suzong; During his reign, the An Shi Rebellion was successfully suppressed. He believed in Buddhism so he spent lots of money building Buddhist temples, which added a great burden on Tang's national finance.	762 - 779
     11	Tang Dezong (Li Shi)	The eldest son of Daizong; known as an industrious and thrifty emperor; During his reign, he tried, but failed, to control the power of the Fanzhen.	780 - 805

      

182. Kao Tseu – Emperor Gaozu of Tang (Zh. 高祖; W/G Kao Tsu; pinyin: Gaozu, r. 618-626). Born as Li Yilan, was the first emperor of the Tang dynasty. As the Count of Tang he had served as governor of a military district in Shanxi. A rather timid man and a dedicated Confucianist, he was extremely reluctant to participate in the revolt against the corrupt Sui dynasty. It was his son, Li Shimin, who actually led the revolt and succeeded in overthrowing the Sui. By a bit of clever intrigue Li Shimin brought his father into the revolt so that the latter would become the first Tang emperor. Histoire VI: 1-40. Nolde 159.

183. Li-Chi – Princess Pingyang (d. 623), daughter of Emperor Gaozu and sister to Taizong of Tang. In 617, she raised an army of ten thousand soldiers and came to the aid of her father and brother in their struggles to gain the empire from the Sui dynasty. Histoire VI: 20-22. Nolde 159. 

184. Tou-kou-hoen – Tuyuhun, Tartar tribe that occupied the territory around Lake Kokonor in Qinghai Province, W central China. This tribe was raiding the Tao and Min prefectures in Gansu. The husband of Princess Pingyang, General Chai Shao (Zh.柴绍; c. 588–638 AD) defeated them by using an original strategy. In order to distract the Tuyuhun soldiers, he placed musicians and dancers on a hill in front of them, while he was moving his own troops stealthily just behind the Tartars. When the time was right, he attacked both from the front and the back, routing the enemy completely. Histoire VI: 23. 

185. Fou stood against foé – Fu Yi, (Zh. 傅奕, 555-639), historian, astronomer, Confucian philosopher and official serving as minister under Emperor Tang Gaozu. He is known for his protest against Buddhism, which had become entrenched in the Sui and Tang capitals,  Chang's an and Luoyang. He saw Buddhism as economically draining (monks/nuns avoided taxes, monasteries hoarded wealth); socially disruptive (undermining filial piety by encouraging monastic life) and politically dangerous (loyalty to Buddhist institutions over the state). 

     In 624 AD, Fu Yi submitted a memorial to Emperor Gaozu titled Petition to Abolish Buddhist Teachings (Zh. 请废佛法表; pinyin: Qǐng fèi fófǎ biǎo) demanding severe restrictions on Buddhism. His key points included: Buddhism is a Foreign Doctrine: Fu Yi called it "a barbarian teaching from the Western Regions" (Zh. 西域胡教; pinyin: Xīyù hú jiào), unfit for Chinese civilization. Buddhism did economic harm, as monasteries owned vast lands tax-free, while peasants suffered. Monks and nuns avoided labor and military service, weakening the state. Fu also accused the Buddhist clergy of hypocrisy, greed, and sexual misconduct, stating that Buddhism destroyed family values by promoting celibacy over filial piety. As an astronomer, Fu Yi rejected karma and rebirth as unscientific and ridiculed Buddhist rituals (e.g., sutra chanting, relic worship) as "delusions to cheat the people." Histoire VI: 29-32. Nolde 160. See also Chinese text and translation of the memorial in Sources.
     Emperor Gaozu was initially sympathetic and issued edicts to limit ordinations, return clergy to secular life and confiscate monastic lands but the measures were not fully enforced. Buddhism continued to grow, reaching a flourishing during the reigns of Emperor Taizong and Empress Wu Zetian. 

186. foe – "Fo," Buddha. See also n.134, 162.

     

187. Tai Tsong – Emperor Taizong of Tang (Zh. 唐太宗; W/G T’ai Tsung; pinyin: Taizong, r. 626-649). Title adopted by Li Shimin when he replaced his father on the Tang throne. He was one of China’s most remarkable emperors. A disciple of Confucius, he noted that emperors who embraced Daoism or Buddhism brought about the downfall of their dynasties:  “Just as wings are necessary for the birds and water for the fishes, so I put my trust in the teachings of the sages of our country.” He cut government costs, reduced taxes, built libraries, aided scholars, and saw that his people had more than enough for their daily needs. He greatly expanded the empire to the west. In 645 he invaded Korea but could not bring it completely into the empire. In 649, he composed “Notes on Conduct” which Pound admired and wanted to bring into his Confucian canon. C LIV: n.199.

188. Ouei-Tching – Wei Zheng (Zh.魏徵, 580-643), an astute minister who served Emperor Taizong. He was noted for the frankness with which he criticized the emperor.

189. Tchang-sun Chi – Empress Zhangsun (Zh. 長孫皇后, 601-636), one of Emperor Taizong’s consorts. Like her husband, she rejected Daoism and Buddhism. At her death, she asked the emperor not to build her an elaborate tomb because it would cost the people too much. She, like Wei Cheng, was sincere in presenting a counter-opinion to her husband.

190. “Notes for Princesses” – Work by Empress Zhangsun on the lives of the princesses of the Chinese Empire before her time. 

191. law code – The simplification of the law code that Taizong ordered at the request of Consort Zhangsun was a part of the measures he took to relieve the oppression that had existed under the Sui dynasty:
     “Taizong, recalling the dying plea of his empress consort, ordered Fang Xuanling along with other high-ranking officials to carefully review the legal code, clarify its language, reduce penalties for criminals as much as possible, and lessen the tax burden on the people.
     In accordance with this decree, they condensed all laws into 500 articles and reduced criminal penalties to 20 categories. From the capital punishment statutes inherited from the Sui dynasty, they abolished 92 offenses warranting death and 71 offenses punishable by exile. They similarly mitigated other penalties and significantly reduced taxes.” Histoire VI: 79. Nolde 166.

192. Halls to Confucius and Tchéu-Kong – “Regarding customs and rites with legal force, they fixed their number at 1,590 and added a new provision: a hall in state academies would henceforth honor the Duke of Zhou (Zhou Gong) as the primary figure, with Confucius as his associate, to motivate scholars to excel in learning and serve the state. Fang Xuanling opposed placing the Duke of Zhou above Confucius, arguing that Confucius deserved the primary position, with his disciple Yan Hui as his associate. However, his opinion was overruled.” Histoire VI: 79. Nolde 166.
     For more informatioon on the Duke of Zhou, see also OCCEP LIII. nn.62-64.

193. Ma-Tchéou – Ma Zhou (⾺周, Mǎ Zhōu, 601–648), one of the most prominent ministers during Emperor Taizong’s reign and a key figure in the golden age of the Zhenguan era.

     Using free indirect speech, De Mailla paraphrases the reforms that Ma Zhou proposed in a memorial to the Emperor in 637 AD. Among the proposals and admonishments, Pound selects the reduction of corvées (free labour for the emperor or nobles), prioritizing the reduction of grain prices and the reduction of grain hoarding in the state granaries (“lock not up the people’s subsistence”).

194. corvées/ that had been under SOUI – though Pound had looked admiringly on Sui’s grand civil works (“honour of YANG TI of SOUI/ the stream Kou-choui was linked to Hoang Ho the river/ great works by oppression/ by splendid oppression/ the Wall was from Yu-lin to Tsé-ho / and a million men worked on that wall.” LIV: ll.325-330), Ma Zhou’s memorial teaches him about the downsides, which are just as important:
     “Your Majesty wishes to revive the wise governance of Yu the Great, Cheng Tang, King Wen, and King Wu, to secure your dynasty’s perpetuity. But this hope will be in vain if the current laws remain unchanged. All families under Your Majesty’s rule were once subjects of the Sui, and their members are still ceaselessly conscripted for imperial labor or public corvée. No sooner has the eldest son finished his duty than the youngest is summoned, leaving them no time to farm their lands. Your intent is to lighten the people’s burdens, yet the unending toil grants them no respite. History shows that no reign endures when the people are oppressed and discontent breeds rebellion. King You and King Li [of Zhou] condemned Jie and Zhou Xin [tyrannical last rulers of Xia and Shang] for alienating their subjects; Sui Yangdi mocked the rulers of Zhou and Qi—yet we now mock Sui Yangdi in turn. Let posterity not mock us likewise!” Histoire VI: 81. Nolde 167.

195. grain price was high – Ma Zhou’s memorial brings to light the underbelly of Sui Yangdi's grand projects of civil works and the rebellions that were the result. Besides bloated and harsh punishments, imperial greed and hoarding, destruction of families by forced labour, Pound also mentions the price of food and the emperor’s responsibility to balance his core projects with general prosperity:

     “In the first year of Your Majesty’s reign, grain prices soared—a mere peck sold for a bolt of silk—yet the people did not complain, for they knew their sovereign cared for them. Since then, grain has grown cheaper, yet now the people grumble loudly, for they see their labor exploited only for imperial pleasures, not the common good.” Histoire VI: 82.

196. shares only his surplus – From Ma Zhou’s memorial: “It is not scarcity that destroys dynasties, but misgovernment. The Sui amassed granaries bursting with grain, yet Li Mi [a rebel] seized them; Wang Shichong found Luoyang’s vaults stuffed with silks, gold, and silver—just as we ourselves discovered treasures in Chang’an. I do not argue against preparing for the future, but a prince must store only surplus, not strip the people’s sustenance.” Histoire VI: 82. Nolde 167-8.

     Pound’s summary of Ma Zhou’s economic and political insights indicate that although he himself was in favour of large-scale civil works projects [It. bonifica, “Battle for land”] and granaries for times of scarcity [It. ammassi], as he had seen in Mussolini’s Italy, he was also profiling political and economic counter-argument.

197. denar – L. denarius, coin

198. Oueï-tching spoke his mind to the emperor – another reference to the minister Wei Zheng (see n.188), who was in many respects of similar importance to the emperor as Ma Zhou’s significance to economic reform. He died in 643 AD and Emperor Taizong noted:
     “Ordinary mirrors are used to know and correct faulty attire. The history of the ancients serves us as a mirror to know what raises and what ruins the fortunes of men. And when one carefully considers the nature of men, one sees easily in this mirror of what one’s virtues and short-comings consist. Ouei Tching took care to continually put these three kinds of mirrors before my eyes and I was watching what I was doing. I have lost him! Perhaps there will be no one who will again place these mirrors before my eyes.” Histoire VI: 99. Nolde 169.

199. Caspian – Caspian Sea.

200. Koulihan – Guligan [Zh. 骨利干; pinyin: Gǔ lì gàn, “Bones and Stems”], ancient name of a tribal confederation living north of Lake Baikal and especially known for fine horses and lily grass. De Mailla wrote that they lived so far north that “the days are very long and the nights very short.” However, he places them in error North of the Caspian Sea, much farther to the west of Tang’s zone of influence. The Koulikans sent an embassy to Emperor Taizong in 647 AD. Histoire VI: 116-117.
     “In the twenty-first year of the Zhenguan era (647 AD), envoys were dispatched to present horses; the Tang dynasty established the territory as Xuánquè Prefecture. During the Longshuo era (661–663 AD), it was renamed Yuwu Prefecture and placed under the jurisdiction of the Hanhai [Lake Baikal] Military Commandery.” Baidu: 骨利干. See also Wikipedia: “Kurykans.” See the “Anbei Protectorate” on the map below.  
     “By the 6th century AD, the Kurykan tribal confederation formed in Cisbaikalia from the earlier tiled graves people, Bronze Age people and remnants of Xiongnu. They most probably were Turkic-Mongolian bilinguals. The Chinese sources show that the Kurykan lived by Lake Baikal. From the 10th century migration of the Mongolian tribes started in the region. Mongols actively mixed with the local population. By the 14th century, remnants of the Kurykan people were fully Mongolized.” Bashkuev, 2012.

201. Kief-kou – Jiegu [Zh. 结骨; pinyin: Jié gǔ, “bone”], today known as “Yenisei Kyrghyz,” ancient Turkic people living along the upper course of the Yenisei river who were known in China as the Jiankun or Jiegu.        
     
     “During the early Han dynasty, they were subject to the Xiongnu Zhizhi Chanyu. After the Wei and Jin dynasties, they were referred to as the Jiegu. In the Tang dynasty, they were also known as the Xiájiásī. Across the vast expanse of ancient Western Regions, the Jiegu tribe was renowned for its valour and martial prowess, emerging as a formidable force within the region. The Jiegu tribe northwest of the Huihe [Uyghur tribes] was designated as the Jiankun Prefecture; to its north, the Guligan tribe formed the Xuanque Prefecture; and to the northeast, the Juluobo tribe constituted the Zhulong Prefecture. Baidu: 结骨; Wikipedia: Yenisei Kyrghyz.            
     De Mailla adds that these people had red hair and blue eyes. They were tall, and had a martial air. As they had never been to China before, they sent an embassy to Emperor Taizong in 648 to ensure military protection of the Tang for their region. Histoire VI: 116-117.

202. Atchen (Atkins) Chelisa – (Shiboqu) Azhan [Zh. (失钵屈)阿栈; pinyin: (Shī bō qū) ā zhàn], leader of the Jiankun tribe in the Western Regions during the Tang Dynasty. He held the official title of 俟利发 (pinyin: Sì lì fā), which de Mailla describes as “first officer.” Histoire VI: 116-117.   
     Achilles Fang pointed out that Pound misread the “f” in De Mailla as “s,” hence “Chelisa.”  
             
     “Shiboqu Azhan was the chieftain of the Western Regions’ Jiankun tribe (also known as Jiegu or Xiajiasi) during the Zhenguan era of the Tang Dynasty, holding the official title of Silifa. In the 22nd year of Zhenguan (648 AD), he led his tribe in submitting to the Tang court, receiving an audience with Emperor Taizong and being enfeoffed as General of the Left Garrison and Governor of Jiankun. The Tang Dynasty established the Jiankun Protectorate for this purpose, placed under the jurisdiction of the Yanran Protectorate, signifying the Jiankun tribe’s formal incorporation into the Tang Dynasty’s tributary system. Subsequently, the Jiankun tribe continued to pay tribute during the reigns of Emperor Gaozong and Emperor Zhongzong, until official relations were severed during the Qianyuan era [758-760].” Baidu: 失钵屈)阿栈

203. “Notes on Conduct” – The Essentials of Governance (Zh. 貞觀政要 Zhenguan zhengyao, "Essential Governance of the Zhenguan Era" [Taizong's reign 618-649]) a treatise in 10 volumes and 40 chapters written down by Wu Jing and meant as a guide for Taizong's son and successor. Among the principles of Taizong's governance also profiled in the canto, we might mention: Selecting virtuous officials, encouraging open criticism, learning from history, emphasis on legality and justice, focus on the welfare of the people, self-reflection and improvement.

     Pound’s summary of Emperor Taizong’s reign also indicates certain parallels he drew between him and the founder of the Han dynasty, Liu Bang, especially in the reliance of both emperors on valuable, sincere, and loyal counsellors. In the case of Liu Bang, Pound mentions the faithful Xiaohe, Lu Jia, Fan Kouai, Sun Tong, quoting the Emperor as saying: “‘It appears to me’ said this Emperor, ‘that it is / because I saw what each man cd/ put through.’” LIV, ll.42-43.

     In the case of Taizong, Pound mentions Pei Ju, Fu Yi, Wei Zheng, Ma Zhou, and even Consort Zhangsun. Wu Jing's The Essentials of Governance finds a parallel in Lu Jia’s “The New Discourse” – Xinyu (see n. 28).

     Also compare the dialogue between Liu Bang and Lu Jia: “And Lou Kia was sent to Nan-hai, with nobility, /and wished that the king (the books Chu king and Chi king) be restored / to whom KAO: I conquered the empire on horseback./ to whom Lou: Can you govern it in that manner? /whereon Lou-kia wrote ‘The New Discourse’ in 12 chapters, and the books were restored” (ll. 44-49) with Taizong’s final admonition to his son: “and the last on keepin’ up kulchur / Saying ‘I have spent money on palaces /too much on ’osses, dogs, falcons / but I have united the Hempire (and you ’aven’t)/ Nothing harder than to conquer a country/ and damn’d easy to lose one, in fact there/ ain’t anything heasier” LIV, ll. 392-98. Histoire VI: 121. Nolde 171-2.

204. Empress Ou-heou – Empress Wu, or Wu Zetian (Zh. 武則天, reigned 690-705 AD) began her political career as one of the concubines of Emperor Taizong. In 656, after his death, she became the empress consort of his son Emperor Gaozong and for the next forty years was one of the most important figures in Chinese political history. Cruel and unscrupulous, she controlled two emperors and became virtual ruler of the empire. She forced her husband to make her coruler (they were known as “The Two Holy Ones”) and finally took over all his power. During the years 684-705, her son Zhongzong of Tang was nominally the emperor, but the period is often known as the reign of Empress Wu Zetian.

205. TAÏ TSONG’S contraption still worked/ local administrations in order — reference to a passage in the Histoire where de Mailla remarked that Emperor’s Taizong old officials were still in place during the reign of Wu Zetian. They were able to keep the empire at peace for several years. Histoire VI: 139.

206. Tching-gintai – probably Cheng Zhijie (Zh. 程知節; 589-665 AD), a general of the imperial Tang army serving Emperor Gaozong (reigned 650-684 AD). He was sent to deal with the Tartar tribes that had been attacking the borders of the empire. His campaign was a success, but on the return journey “almost the entire army died of misery and fatigue, so that barely eight hundred men were able to reach the Chinese frontier.” Histoire VI: 140. Nolde 174.

207. Hochang – Buddhists. During the Tang period their power and influence increased. One of their leaders gave the empress a book which claimed to prove that she was the daughter of Buddha and that she should succeed to the Tang dynasty. Wu Zetian’s Buddhist beliefs were reflected in the sculptures of the Longmen caves near Luoyang.

208. TCHONG – Emperor Zhonzong of Tang (Zh. 唐中宗; W/G Chung Tsung; pinyin Zhonzong, reigned 684; 705-710 AD), was a weak emperor who was controlled by women. His mother, Wu Zetian, ruled the empire until 705; from 705 to 710 the emperor was dominated by his wife, Wei, who wanted to be a second Wu Zetian. Wei was murdered in 710. 

209. HIEUN – Emperor XuanZong of Tang (Zh. 唐玄宗; pinyin: Tang Xuan Zong, 712-756 AD), was one of the best-known emperors in Chinese history. He paid strict attention to governing his people and made sumptuary laws for the court in order to cut down state expenses. In 740, he ordered that Confucius be elevated to the rank of prince. But his reign ended in the An-Lushan rebellion, Xuanzong’s ignominious retreat from Chnag’an to Chengdu and his resignation in favor of his son, Suzong who was left to fight the rebellion alone.

210. Hieun measured shadows at solstice – It was not the emperor but a Buddhist monk [hochang] and his assistant that in 724 AD made the astronomical measurement Pound outlines:
     “The Emperor entrusted this task to a monk of the He clan named Yixing, who was widely acknowledged as an eminent mathematician at the time, and indeed proved himself to be so. He constructed a gnomon eight feet in height, which he handed to Nangong Shuo, dispatching him to the regions of Henan and Hebei to measure the shadow cast by the sun at noon on the winter and summer solstices, and to measure the altitude of the North Star above the horizon during the night.
     Nangong Shuo conducted his first observations at Yangcheng, recording a shadow length of one foot, four inches, seven-tenths of an inch, and eight-hundredths of an inch at the summer solstice, with the Polaris reaching a maximum altitude of thirty-four degrees and a fraction of a degree during the night. At Langzhou, south of Yangcheng, the noon shadow measured one foot seven inches and seven-tenths, with the Pole Star at twenty-nine and a half degrees. At Junyi, north of Langzhou, the noon shadow was slightly over one foot five inches, and the Pole Star reached thirty-four degrees and eight-tenths.” Histoire VI: 210-211.       
     This passage documents the nationwide astronomical and geodetic survey conducted under the direction of the Tang Dynasty monk Ikkō (Zhang Sui) in 724 CE, with Nangong Shuo serving as its principal executor. This survey holds significant historical importance as the first in world science to determine the arc length of one degree of the meridian through direct measurement. The gnomon and quadrant were crucial ancient instruments for determining solar terms and calendrical systems by measuring the length of the sun's shadow.

211. For five years no taxes in Louchou – Luozhou ( 洛州), one of the names of the city of Luoyang where the emperor was born.

212. Chepouching – Shíbǎochéng (Zh. 石堡城, the “Stone Fortress City”). Fortress on the Tang-Tibetan border in Hezhou (modern Linxia County in Gansu province) a key commandery of the Tang. Whereas the Tibetans had captured it in 715, it was recaptured by the Tang general Li Yi (李禕) in 729. Histoire VI: 218.

213. Ngan-yong – Anrongcheng [Zh. 安戎城; pinyin: Ānróngchéng, “City to Pacify the Western Barbarians”], a bulwark on the Sichuan-Tibetan frontier. De Mailla mentions that “the Chinese saw with regret the city of Ngan-yong-tching get into the hands of the Toufan.” In 740, seeing that taking it by force was not yielding results, they had recourse to stratagems. Histoire VI: 227.

214. (Tou-san) – Toufan [Zh. 吐蕃; Tǔfān], The Tibetan Empire, a major rival of the Tang for the control of central Asia.

215. Queen Koué-fei – Yang Yuhuan (Zh. 楊玉環, 719-756 AD), was the “Precious Consort” (Zh. 貴妃, Guifei) of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang and second in importance to the empress. She is considered to be one of the four beauties of ancient China. During the An Lu-shan rebellion in 756, the soldiers demanded her death because they blamed the rebellion on her family. The emperor finally consented to her execution and she was strangled. When her body was shown to the soldiers, they promptly returned to their posts. However, because she was an innocent victim of politics, the emperor became so sad that he resigned the throne that same year. C LIV: n.228.
     Pound's phrasing here is very disconcerting: in effect, he says: "queen consort." "Koué-fei" is not a name but a title. He could have said "Yang Koué-fei" or "Queen Yang."

216. SOU TSONG – Emperor Suzong of Tang (Zh. 唐肅宗; pinyin: Tang Su Zong reigned 756-762 AD). His reign was one of continual wars against the An Lushan Rebellion.

217. Tchang-siun – Zhang Xun (Zh. 张巡, 709-757 AD) was a commander of imperial troops defending the Tang against the An Lushan Rebellion. He is best known of defending the cities of Yongqiu (spring to December 756) and Suiyang (February-November 757) against the rebels. His desperate defense was prolonged but ultimately defeated – Zhang Xun was captured after the Suiyang siege and executed in November 757. However, shortly after, the city was retaken by the Tang.

218. had need of arrows – Zhang Xun is best remembered for his intelligent defense of the city of Yongqiu during the prolonged siege of 756, which made it possible to resist with a much smaller army in conditions of desperate difficulty.
     “The length of the siege having exhausted his supply of arrows, he had one thousand to twelve hundred straw men made, which he dressed in blue cloth, similar to the soldiers' uniform. Taking advantage of the darkness of night, he placed them at the base of the walls, within range of the enemies, who did not fail to rain a hail of arrows onto these dummies. Zhang Xun retrieved several hundred thousand of them. But the besiegers, having recognized their error, ceased firing.
     The following night, the commander had five hundred elite soldiers descend in the same manner into the trenches. The enemies, who again took them for dummies, only laughed at them; but these supposed straw men unleashed such a terrible volley upon them that, seized by fear, they set fire to their own camp and fled. The five hundred soldiers, animated by the success of their stratagem, pursued them for more than ten li.” Histoire VI: 258.

219. Yong-kieu – Yongqiu (Zh. 雍丘), city of the Suiyang commandery in current Qi County, Kaifeng. The strategic goal of the An Lushan forces was to control the vital Grand Canal, which supplied the imperial heartland with grain and wealth from the south. Yongqiu and Suiyang were the last major loyalist strongholds blocking the rebel army's path to the rich southern provinces. Holding these cities was critical to saving the Tang dynasty. Zhang Xun’s resistance prolonged the siege to almost a year (756) and closed the access of the rebels to the south of China, thus decisively contributing to the eventual defeat of the rebellion. See siege of Yongqiu. 

     

220. Li-yen – Li Yen, a mandarin serving in the government of Emperor Dezong. In 779 AD, he presented the emperor a memorial about varied coloured clouds. It was not well-received:
     “The peace and satisfaction of the people, the abundance of crops, skill and wisdom in administration, are news which I am happy to receive. As for extraordinary clouds, rare animals, plants unknown until now, monsters and other extraordinary feats of nature, what good does all this do to men?” Histoire VI: 315. Nolde 181.

221. Te Tsong – Emperor Dezong of Tang (Zh. 德宗; W/G Te Tsung; pinyin: Dezong; reigned 779-805). His ministers urged him to obtain revenue by imposing new taxes and to abolish the three existing ones: land tax, compulsory labor, and payment in kind. The new tax was an annual collection in money. 

222. Nestorians – Church of the East. Members of the Nestorian church, originally the ancient Christian church of Persia. It is related to Catholicism but not part of the Catholic communion. Its period of greatest expansion was from the 7th to the ten10th century, when missions were sent to India and China. In 631, the Nestorians brought Christianity into China. The famous Nestorian stele (in Xian, Shanxi Province) is a record, in Chinese and Syriac, of the progress of Christianity in China from 631 to 781, when the stele was erected. 

223. Kouo-tse-y – Guo Ziyi (Zh. 郭子仪, 697-781), was one of the most famous Chinese generals. He served four Tang emperors: Xuanzong, Suzong, Daizong, and Dezong. His campaigns against the rebel An Lu-shan and the Tartars were successful and he proved to be an able governor of various cities and provinces. His loyalty to the empire, unlike that of most officials, was never questioned. His name is mentioned in the famous Nestorian stele.

224. Li-ching – Li Sheng, fl. 787, was a captain in the imperial troops who enjoyed great success against the Tartars. It was he who said that war with them was better than peace. In 787, when it was discovered that he was having an affair with a daughter of Emperor Suzong. The latter became so angry that he exiled Li Sheng to Guangdong. Histoire VI: 346.

225. Té-Tsong … went into a peasant’s house incognito – Anecdote about emperor Dezong and his conversation with a farmer, Zhao Guangqi, during a hunting trip in Xintian in 787. Histoire VI: 350-351.
     
     The Emperor, believing his reign is a golden age, suggested that people must be very happy: the harvests have been abundant for years, and there is no war. The farmer bluntly disabuses him of this notion. He delivers a powerful critique of the government's fiscal policies: 1. Excessive and Arbitrary Taxes: Beyond the standard biannual land tax, the government constantly invents new pretexts to demand more money; 2.The “Harmonious Purchase” Scam: This is the core of the complaint. When the harvest is good, the state forcibly buys grain from peasants at artificially low prices, only to sell it back to them at a high price later, or to supply the army. This policy, known as Hedi (和籴), was meant to stabilize prices but had become a predatory form of taxation. 3. Transport and sale: Peasants are forced to transport their grain to the capital at their own expense, a journey so arduous that many die of fatigue.    
     
     The farmer concludes that the common people, burdened by taxes and labor, can never be secure or content. The Emperor listens calmly and realizes that his officials have been lying to him about the true state of the people. However, he takes no broad action to reform the system. His only response is to personally exempt Zhao Guangqi from corvée labor.

226. bé– F, “well!” 

227. corvée– F, “labor required by the state.” Emperor Dezong did nothing about taxes in general, but he relieved the farmer he visited from required labor. 
     
     This story shows the economic difficulties of the Tang Dynasty in the aftermath of the An-Lushan rebellion (755-763). The central government was financially crippled, and regional military governors (jiedushi) held immense autonomous power. Emperor Dezong was trying to reassert central control and raise funds, leading to these heavy-handed tax policies;
     The Failure of the "Two-Tax System": In 780, Dezong's minister Yang Yan implemented a major tax reform known as the "Two-Tax System" (两税法), which was supposed to simplify and make taxation fairer. In practice, it failed. Local officials piled on numerous extra fees, as the farmer described. The state's financial needs were so great that the Hedi "grain purchase" became a brutal, compulsory levy.
     
     The anecdote provides a portrait of imperial weakness: The Emperor's acknowledges the truth but takes only symbolic action. Instead of launching a sweeping investigation or reform, he does nothing systemic. Granting a personal favor to one farmer was a safe, symbolic gesture that cost the treasury nothing but changed nothing for the millions of others suffering the same fate. In essence, the story from 787 is not just about a clever peasant but a vivid snapshot of a dynasty in managed decline. It shows that even without the drama of rebellion and siege, the Tang state was being hollowed out from within by oppressive and corrupt governance that eroded the well-being of its people.         
     
     The anecdote is also a miniature and stress-test of Pound’s economic beliefs. Whereas Pound was strongly against taxes, believing that they are often perverted to finance war instead of prosperity in peacetime, he was inclined to believe that the practice of the Fascist government to buy grain from farmers at fixed prices was a benefit to producers, since it gave them the certainty of full harvest sale. Seen from this Chinese perspective, the Fascist grain purchases look more like abuse, rather than benefit.

228. and then laid a tea tax – Coming from an American author, this line is sheer sarcasm, as it reminds readers what happened when the British empire tried to impose a tea tax on the American colonies. The taxed tea was thrown into the harbour in what came to be known as The Boston Tea Party in 1773, an event which was the sounding bell of the American revolution. Through this apparently casual remark, Pound fully anticipates the approaching disintegration of the Tang.